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Mean of Monolingual, Multilingual, Lingual Franca, Mothers tongue, Foreign language
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Mean of Purposive sampling,
Mean of Purposive sampling,
Cluster sampling,
Simple Random Quota sampling Voluntial
sampling Voluntary Sampling
Stratified sampling Captive
sampling Accidental
sampling Systematic sampling
Purposive sampling: Also known as judgmental, selective or subjective
sampling is a type of non-probability sampling technique.
Non-probability sampling focuses on sampling techniques where the units
that are investigated are based on the judgment of the researcher. There
are a number of different goals.
Cluster sampling: is a sampling technique used when “natural” but
relative heterogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical
population. It is often used in marketing research. In this technique,
the total population is divided into these groups (or Clusters) and a
sample random sample of the groups is selected. The elements in each
cluster are sampled, and then this is referred to as a “one-stage”
cluster design.
Systematic sampling: is a statistical method involving the selection of
elements from an ordered sampling frame. The most common form of
systematic sampling is an equal-probability method. In this approach,
progression through the list is treated circularly, with a return to the
top once the end of the list is passed.
Accidental sampling: is a type of non- probability sampling that
involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population that is
close to hand. That is, sample populations selected because it is
readily available and convenient, as researchers are drawing on
relationships or networks to which they have easy access. The researcher
using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about
the total population from this sample because it would not be
representative enough. For example, if the interviewer was to conduct
such a survey at a shopping center early in the Moring on a given day,
the people that he/she could interview would be limited to those given
there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at
different times of day and several times per week.
Captive sampling: it comparison of 2 behavioral sampling method to
establish a time budget in a captive female cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)
Behavioral studies of wild animals kept in captivity useful information
for conservation programs and animal welfare.
Stratified sampling: is a method of sampling from a population. In
statistical survey, when subpopulations within an overall population
vary, it is advantageous to sample each subpopulation (stratum)
independently. Example: Assume that we need to estimate average number
of votes for each candidate in an election. Assume that country has
three (3) towns: Town A has 1 million factory workers, Town B has 2
million office workers, and Town C has 3 million retirees. We can choose
to get a random sample of size 60 over entire population but there is
some chance that the random sample turns out to be not well balanced
across these town and hence is biased causing a significant error in
estimation. Instead if we choose to take a random sample of 10, 20 and
30 from Town A, B and C respectively then we can produce a smaller error
in estimation for the same total size of sample.
Voluntial sampling: Voluntary Sampling is one of the main types of
non-probability sampling method. A voluntary sampling is made up of
people who self-select into the survey. Often, these folks have a strong
interest in the main topic of the survey. Suppose, for example, that a
news show asks viewers to participate sample. The sample is chose by the
viewers, not by the survey administrator.
Quota sampling: is a method for selecting survey participants that is a
non-probabilistic version of stratified sampling. In quota sampling, a
population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just
as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used to select the subjects
or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. Example: an
interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the
age of 45 and 60. This means that individuals can put a demand on who
they want to sample (targeting) the second step makes the technique non-
probability sample.
Simple Random: in statistics, a simple random sample is a subset of
individuals (a sample) chosen from a larger set (a population). Each
individual is chose randomly and entirely by chance, such that each
individual has the same probability of being chosen at any stage during
the sampling process, and each subset of k individuals has the same
probability of being chosen for the sample as any other subset of K
individual. A simple Random sample is an unbiased surveying
technique.
Teaching is specialized application of knowledge skills
Teaching is specialized application of knowledge skills
THE EFFECT OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ABSTRACT
THE EFFECT OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study is to look into the effects of drug abuse, its
application on students in some selected secondary schools in Egor
Local Government Area of Edo State. In the light of the above topic or
subject matter, attempts were made to find out the drugs commonly
abused by students and the reasons why they are abused. As a result, the
following questions were asked as a basis for our finding.
1. What is drug abuse?
2. Why do you think children abuse drug?
3. What are some of the effects of drug abuse on the user?
4. How do drugs affect the performance of students in schools?
5. As teachers and parents, what steps have you taken in controlling
drug abuse?
Literature was reviewed on the topic using relevant authors such as
textbooks, journals and newspapers etc. Questionnaires were also made
to collect vital information about the research study. Based on the
findings, it was gathered that students who abuse drug do it because of
friends, to make them bold. CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
A drug can be defined as any chemical solid, liquid or amorphous
substance derived from plants, animals or mineral resources which is
applied externally or internally to cause some desirable effects.
Also, drug can be defined as a substance which by its chemical
nature has an effect to open the body of higher nervous system (the
mind) the effect of drug could be positive or negative.
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF DRUG
Drug when properly used or taking into a living organism, produces
the desired result, and may modify one or more of its functional parts;
it is
usually prescribed by a medical practitioner. Such drugs or substances
are either of vegetables, animals or mineral origin. They could be
prepared for the human body that that produces the desired results into
the treatment of diseases and ailment.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF DRUG (DRUG ABUSE)
The negative effect of drug is also referred to as drug abuse. Drug
abuse is therefore defined as the excessive consumption of a drug by any
individual. Drug abuse results when there is self injection or from the
approved medical in a manner that deviates from the approved medical
usage. Drug abuse is involved in the following:
1. Excessive use of drugs and use of unprescribed drugs.
2. Use of hard drugs.
Excessive use of drugs and use of unprescribed drugs
This is when an individual takes in drugs without following the
current prescription of the doctor.
Use of hard drugs
Hard drugs are capable of affecting the state of the body or mind
by either depressing or stimulating the central nervous system or
producing other biochemical harm to the society at large.
According to Agwusike (1990), drug abuse is the use of drugs above
the prescribed dosage and for the purpose other than for the original
prescription.
Adi also defined drug abuse as self treatment of physical ailment
which could result from ignorance. The society of doctors and
pharmacists frowned at the uncontrollable ways and manners in which
the drugs are sold to the public in our markets, and medical stores
which
are contributory factors to drug abuse. Uncivilized and developed
nations,
drugs other than those for common pain, cough and cold remedies are
sold in a doctor’s prescription.
Drug abuse could be viewed from different perspectives depending on
the focus under view. It could be described as a non medical use of
drug,
which may cause harm to the individual and the society. These could be
drugs which do not conform to the society’s cultural norm of a society.
People generally misuse or abuse drugs because the substance alter
the mode of behaviour of an individual. Over the years, the use of hard
drugs like tobacco, sedatives, Indian hemp, cocoa leaves, alcohol,
heroine,
morphine, cocaine to mention but a few have drastically been on the
increase especially in this part of the world (Africa). The dependence
or
addition, which is psychological, is characterized by the compulsion to
take drugs on a continuous or periodic basis in order to experience its
mental effect.
The history of drug abuse could also be traced to the urge of man
wanting to have power to relieve tension, satisfy his needs obtained
occasional release from problems and the need to find a cure to some
ailments, all these have contributed to drug use and abuse. The use of
drugs by man is as old as man himself. Man consumed the juices of
opium poppies long before there were narcotics, such as morphine and
heroine, man chewed cocoa leaf long before cocaine was extracted from
both American cocoa plants. Man dried peyote castro long before they
synthesized. Throughout recorded history, drug has been in use long
before this medical and recreational intoxicating and self induced
relief
from psychic pain and emotion. The early history of drug is inseparable
from the early history of medicine.
Most traditional drugs are always misused or abused because of lack
of dosage to determine the quantity required by the users. The
expiration
period is never stated, substances that are today referred to as drugs
originated from herbs and other natural chemicals, caffeine, which is
the
main ingredient in tea or coffee and nicotine as in tobacco or
cigarette, is
widely used as mind stimulant and tension relieving drugs. They are
considered socially acceptable and used recreationally.
However, they produce dependence and are also known to cause
harm. Other drugs, although are used medically for the treatment of one
ailment or the other, may also cause problems for the individual.
Examples of such drugs are psychoactive drugs or sedatives like valium
and mogadon which are sleeping pills and pain killers which are
medically prescribed but may be abuse thus causing dependence and
harm.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
Drugs can be classified into the following viz;
1. Stimulants such as tobacco, cocaine or coffee.
2. Depressant such as alcohol and other substances of depressants
such as heroine, morphine and opiates.
3. Hallucinogens.
STIMULANTS
This kind of drug stimulates the nervous system of an individual to
behave extraordinarily leading such individual to misbehave. The health
implication is that the individual is acting on the influence of a
cultivating
factor such as tobacco, cocaine etc. Common incidence that happens
around us today is on the influence of these stimulants and if care is
not
taken, could lead to mental disorder.
DEPRESSANTS
These are sleep inducing drugs. They are used to calm anxious
and restless subjects. These are barbiturates and non barbiturates that
are capable of producing some degree of depression of the central
nervous system (CNS). They are the most dangerous drugs.
HALLUCINOGENS
These are substances that produce a state of altered perception
and other alteration of mood such as illusion, hallucination. Examples
of
these drugs are lysergic acid diethyl lamine (LSD) phylogibin (extracted
from innobrowi) magaline. Drug abuse has caused great problem to
humanity. A lot of damages have been done to human health as a result
of drug use and abuse and these damages could be mental, physical,
emotional and psychological so that it has in a long way reduce life
span
of man. There are also social problems associated with drug use and
abuse. They include high rate of crime, deformity either physically or
mentally and affect unborn children whose mothers abuse drugs when
they are pregnant. It can even lead to high rate of infant mortality in
unborn babies or pregnant mothers when giving birth to mongoloid
children.
Great misfortunes have resulted as a result of drug abuse e.g. series
of road accidents that have claimed lives of men. Drug addicts when
severely under the influence of drugs walked along the street half naked
and perpetual acts like rape, assassination and murders.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Drug abuse is a pandemic problem even on the increases in an
alarming rate in Nigeria today. About two decades ago, incidence of drug
trafficking in Nigeria was low and abuse was minimal, but today drug has
destroyed and killed many people in the society. Students in our
secondary schools are not left out in this act. In view of this, the
research
is embarked on to highlighting the i8lls of drug abuse.
Over the years, it has been observed that students from secondary
schools in Egor local government area of Edo state are in the form of
drug
addiction or the other as well as being involved in drug abuse. This
research is therefore designed to view immediate causes and health
implication of drug abuse among students in some selected secondary
schools in Egor.
The researcher hoped that this research work would help the
teachers, school authorities and the society at large to minimize the
use
and effects of drugs in schools. Also, this study will encourage the
government of Egor local government area to establish drug
rehabilitation
centres with the help of the ministry of health and drug inspection unit
(DIU) to care for addicts.
PURPOSE OF STUDY
The purpose of this study is to highlight the causes of drug abuse
among students in some selected secondary schools in Egor local
government area of Edo state by random sampling thus by taking from
the beginning, middle and deep end of the local government. Although
the4rer are books, magazines, articles and newspapers reports on drug
abuse, no in-depth research has been conducted on the incidence of drug
abuse in students and to recommend appropriate solutions to if possible.
The researcher intends to engage the following:
a. Find out the main causes of drug abuse on students.
b. Determine the effects of these drugs on the students.
c. Find out the influence of drugs on the students and the effect of
drug abuse on the society.
d. Find out the reasons why students abuse drugs.
e. Find out the overall effects of the abuse of drugs on the students.
This study might also stimulate the researcher into areas of drug
education or some aspects of drug use and abuse among
students.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
This study is aimed at investigating drug abuse and its health
implication on students in secondary schools. The following therefore
are
some of the objectives at the end of the study.
1. Students would be informed on the negative effects of drug use and
abuse.
2. Parents and teachers will be acquainted of their roles in curbing
drug abuse from early childhood.
3. More researchers will be encouraged to carryout research work on
the causes of drug abuse and its remedy.
4. Government will be able to make policies and laws that will prohibit
the use of dangerous drugs.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The importance of this study is to provide resource materials for
many that want to have deeper knowledge abou8t the causes, effect and
control of drug abuse.
This research work will encourage organization like NAFDAC, NDLEA,
health organizations like WHO, SHE and government parastatals to
establish drug rehabilitation centres to help victims of drug abuse.
Moreso, the significance of this study is to outline its health
implication amongst secondary school students, which will be centred on
the following:
1. To identify the causes of drug abuse among secondary school
students.
2. To help reduce the hazard of drug abuse to minimum and to
enlighten the teachers on how to educate their students and the
society at large.
3. To reduce the incidence of rape among secondary school students.
4. To alert the government on how to control the abuse of drugs since
the short term and long term effects are disastrous.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
The following are the basic assumptions made by the researcher.
a) That the habit of addicting to drugs begins from the environment
the child grew up in.
b) Students who use drugs are prone to disease attack.
c) Students use drugs and abuse them because they are easily
available.
d) Use of drugs can lead to psychosis and premature death.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In the course of carrying out this research work, the research will
attempt to proffer solutions to the following questions.
a) What are the classes of drugs?
b) What drugs are commonly abused by students?
c) Why do students use drugs?
d) What are the causes of drug abuse?
e) What are the health implications of drugs abuse?
HYPOTHESIS
In order to achieve a purposeful result in this research, it is
necessary
to declare the following statements.
1. Students engage in drug abuse in an attempt to cope with the
opposite sex.
2. Most students abuse drugs in order to gain absolute self confidence
amongst fellow students in class.
3. Drug abuse among students results from influence from friends and
peer group pressure.
4. Students who abuse drugs are sure to suffer from mental,
psychological and emotional problems.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study was carried out in some selected secondary schools in
Egor local government area of Edo state. The schools covered for this
research include: Uselu secondary school, Eghosa grammar school all in
Edo state. These schools were selected because of their past and present
records of drug abuse. Effects of Drug abuse on Academic Performance
the above shows the relationship between the dependent and independent
variables of the study. As shown in the figure, the academic
performance, which was the dependent variable, could be affected by drug
abuse such as alcohol, marijuana, tobacco and
barbiturates among others. If students abuse drugs such as alcohol,
marijuana, tobacco and barbiturates then this will directly impact
negatively on their academic performance. Easy access to drugs at home
or at school influence whether a student is likely to be an addict.
The culture of the people in the community and around the school
directly impacts the student’s life. Excessive alcohol consumption,
especially illicit brews are common in the county, therefore this is
tied to students taking the habit from peers and parents and bonding
with other drug users in the society. However, a student’s attitude
towards drug abuse, impacted by education and knowledge can contribute
to them deciding not to or to take the drugs anyway. The effects of
these variables on the academic performance in colleges could also be
influenced by cultural factors, such community acceptance or lack of
intervention, which was the intervening variable of the study.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters; the first chapter is the
introduction that gives a general overview of the research problem. This
chapter further provides a background to the problem, a problem
statement as well as the objectives and assumptions of the study.
Literature that is relevant to this field of study is reviewed in
chapter two to establish the influence of drugs on students’ academic
performance. Chapter three examines the methodology that will be used to
collect and analyze data. Chapter four deals with data analysis while
chapter five focuses on conclusions and recommendations as well as
further proposed areas of research. CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This section consists of review of related literature. The section
covers introduction, literature on the causes of drug abuse amongst
Students, Nature and extent of drug abuse by Students. Then literature
is reviewed on the measures taken against drug abuse by the schools,
local community as well as both local and county government, effects of
drugs, levels of drug and substance prevention, policies against drug
use in Kenya and social effects of drug abuse and poor academic
performance. After this the theoretical framework and conceptual
framework of the study are presented. Alcoholism and Academic
Performance
A large number of studies tried to identify whether there are direct
and/or indirect causal links between consumption of addictive substances
and poor educational attainment. Most intuitively, alcohol and drug
consumption may have some detrimental effects on pupils’ cognitive
abilities, for instance, by decreasing their ability to concentrate.
Concerning the indirect channels, drug and alcohol consumption may for
instance be responsible for shifting individuals’ resources away from
schooling. Additionally, it may undermine students’ progress by making
them less likely to attend classes or keep up with their studies.
Finally, psychologists argue that heavy drinking may lower individuals’
expectations about their academic performance Deasetal, (2000). This
effect could be driven by a shift in students’ peers when they engage in
abusive alcohol consumption. There is still no consensus in the
literature concerning the existence of a causal link between consumption
of addictive
substances and educational outcomes. On the one hand, some studies
provide evidence that heavy drinking and drug consumption lead to a
lower schooling performance. DeSimone and Wolver (2005) find that by
introducing a large vector of covariates which control for heterogeneity
between alcohol consumers and non-consumers, the negative causal
relation between alcohol use and academic performance re-mains
significant for heavy drinking. In line with these results, Williamset
al (2003), report that heavy drinking has a negative impact on schooling
achievements by reducing the time spent studying.
Renna (2006) finds that heavy alcohol consumption has a negative effect
on the probability of graduating from a high school rather than
receiving a general education diploma (GED). However, these results are
subject to valid criticisms since they ignore or only imperfectly
control for the potential selection bias. Some studies are not able to
reject the absence of a causal effect of drugs and alcohol consumption
on educational performance. For instance, many physiological studies do
not provide robust evidence on the detrimental effects of drugs Solowij,
(1998). In the economic literature, Dee and Evans (2003) conclude that
alcohol use by teenagers does not have any significant impact on their
education. Similarly, Koch and Ribar (2001) demonstrate that the actual
effects of youthful drinking on students’ success are likely to be
small. Finally a recent paper by McCaffrey et al (2008) shows that
marijuana abuse does not have any significant influence on high school
dropout.
The major difficulty in the identification of a causal effect of
addictive substances consumption on educational outcomes is the fact
that students who regularly consume alcohol and drugs do not constitute a
random sample of the population of students. They tend to present some
characteristics that systematically differ from those of students who
abstain from drug and alcohol consumption. For instance, this behaviour
is negatively associated with family income and educational background
(Deaton, 2003). Suppose that some parents do not
encourage their children to place great value on education. If they
provide poor quality supervision to their children including with
respect to alcohol and drugs consumption, then the empirical association
between education and the consumption of these substances would be
spurious. Also, more impatient children are both more likely to smoke
and drink alcohol Sutter et al (2010) and to procrastinate with their
school working duties Bettinger et al (2007). Thus, it is difficult to
disentangle the causal impact of consumption of drugs and alcohol per
someone’s educational achievement. To account for this endogeneity
problem Duarte et al(2006) and Duarte and Escario (2006) employ a
bivariate probity model to jointly estimate the determinants of
schooling and drinking/smoking decisions. Their results indicate a
negative causal relationship between alcohol consumption and schooling
attendance. However, this study can be criticised on the grounds that it
relies on the availability of a valid instrument, i.e. Factor that has
some bearing on the decision to use alcohol and drug, but that is
unrelated to schooling. Renna (2008) and DeSimone (2005) employ a
two-stage probity model to deal with the problem of endogeneity of
alcohol use.
A common and comprehensive measure of students’ learning is Grade Point
Average (GPA). GPA is an important outcome because it is a key
determinant of college admissions decisions and of job quality for those
who do not attend college. Only a few studies have explored the
association between alcohol use and GPA. Wolaver (2002) and Williams,
Powell, and Wechsler (2003) have studied this association among college
students, while DeSimone and Wolaver (2005) have investigated the
effects of underage drinking on GPA during high school. The latter study
found a negative association between drinking and grades, although it
is not clear whether the effects are causal or the result of unobserved
heterogeneity.
Understanding the relationship between teenage drinking and high school
grades is pertinent given the high prevalence of alcohol use among this
age cohort and recent research on adolescent brain development
suggesting that early heavy alcohol use may have negative effects on the
physical development of brain structure (Brown, Tapert, Granholm and
Delis, 2000). By affecting the quality of learning, underage drinking
could have an impact on both college admissions and job quality
independent of its effects on years of schooling or school completion.
Alcohol use could conceivably affect a student’s quality of learning and
academic performance regardless of its impact on school completion.
This possibility is suggested by Renna (2008), who uses a research
design similar to that used by Dee and Evans (2003) and finds that
although binge drinking does not affect high school completion rates, it
does significantly increase the probability that a student graduates
with a GED rather than a high school diploma
By contrast, more recent economic studies that arguably use better
estimation methods have found that drinking has modest or negligible
effects on educational attainment. Dee and Evans (2003) studied the
effects of teen drinking on high school completion, college entrance,
and college persistence. Employing changes in the legal drinking age
across states over time as an instrument, they found no significant
effect of teen drinking on educational attainment. Koch and Ribar (2001)
reached a similar conclusion applying family fixed effects and
instrumental variables to NLSY data. Though they found that drinking had
a significant negative effect on the amount of schooling completed
among men, the effect was small. Finally, Chatterji (2006) used a
bivariate model of alcohol use and educational attainment to gauge the
sensitivity of the estimates to various assumptions about the
correlation of unobservable determinants of these variables. She
concluded that there is no evidence of a
causal relationship between alcohol use and educational attainment when
the correlation coefficient is fixed at plausible levels.
Drinking could affect learning through a variety of mechanisms. Recent
neurological research suggests that underage drinking can impair
learning directly by causing alterations in the structure and function
of the developing brain with consequences reaching far beyond
adolescence Swartz welder, (2004). Negative effects of alcohol use can
emerge in areas such as planning and executive functioning, memory,
spatial operations, and attention Marijuana and Academic Performance
According to (Spooner, 2005) the social environment is a powerful
influence on health and social outcomes. In this context Marijuana use
and related problems result from the complex interplay of the individual
and the environment whereby social institutions or structures can
influence the environment in a manner that can influence drug use and
related problems. Societal structures include government policies,
taxation systems, laws and service systems such as welfare, education,
health and justice. As such increased attention to the ‘social’
determinants of drug use is required. In terms of increasing problematic
Marijuana use Wilkinson notes the rapid growth in widening income
differences during the 1980s and the rise in heroin use.
Adverse socio-economic circumstances may lead to psychological and
emotional damage partly through increasing levels of stress brought on
by money worries, unemployment and housing but essentially through a
lack of choices. The social and economic environment establishes the
context in which domestic life has to cope and cannot be separated from a
range of what are normally seen as family problems. The quality of the
social life of a society is one of the most powerful determinants of
health and this is closely
related to degrees of income equality. However income equality is not
the only determinant. Also important are psychosocial relationships for
the subjective quality of life that people experience. Sources of social
stress, poor social networks, low self-esteem, and high rates of
depression, anxiety and a lack of control all have a fundamental impact
on life experience. In this sense ‘unhealthy behaviours such as
addiction may in part be explained by the need to consume psychoactive
substances for their psychosocial effects, particularly where they are
used to counter stress and reduce anxiety.
Behaviour has been found to lead to the trying out of new experiences
such as drug and sex, sometimes with dire consequence for the
adolescents. One widely accepted definition of drugs states that drugs
are compounds that, because of their chemical structure, change the
functioning of biological systems (Levinthal, 2000).The biological
systems include respiration, growth, excretion, locomotion,
reproduction, etc. The effects may be beneficial as in the case when
drugs commonly referred to as medicines (e.g. Panadol, antibiotics,
cough mixture, etc.) are used as prescribed by the doctor. Some other
drugs have been found to be capable of producing effects that are not
beneficial but harmful (Oloyede, 1996). The term drug abuse, applies
only to instances in which people take drugs purely to change their
moods, and in which they experience impaired behaviour or social
functioning as a result of doing so (Wallace & Fisher 2003).
Unfortunately, when people consume consciousness-altering drugs on a
regular basis, they often develop dependence – they come to need the
drug and cannot function without it. According to (Odejide, Ohaeri,
Adelekan and Ihuesan 2005), psychoactive drug use is a common problem
among adolescents especially for the socially acceptable drugs like
alcohol and cigarettes. A survey of secondary school students in Ilorin,
Kwara State reported that 12% were currently using alcohol (Abiodun,
Adelekan, Ogunremi, Oni &Obayan, 2005). In a study
of out-of – school adolescents aged 11 to 20 in Jos, found a lifetime
consumption of alcohol reported by 38.7% of the respondents (Obot,
Ibagam, Ojiji & Wai, 2001).
Having realized that majority of Marijuana use start during the
adolescence stage especially so for the ‘gateway’ drugs, alcohol and
cigarettes, the need to check this bad practice in the society is
important. Alcohol and cigarettes are described ‘as gateway’ because
they are usually, the first drugs that are used before other drugs are
tried out (Indiana Preventive Resource Centre, 2003). Drug abuse by
students can lead to sharp decline in their academic performance,
increase reports of truancy and expulsion from school. It can also lead
to addiction increased desire for drugs without which normal life
processes is disturbed, and increased appetite and libido. Other vices
such as stealing, fighting and gambling may also be caused by drug abuse
as a result of alteration in the brain chemistry of the abusers.
Continued use of a drug over a prolonged period of time often leads to
drug tolerance, Physiological reaction in which the body requires larger
and larger doses in order to experience the same effects. In some
cases, tolerance for one drug increases tolerance for another; this is
known as cross-tolerance (Baron & Kalsher, 2008). Patterns of drug
use may vary greatly around the world and overtime. In the United
States, the use of many consciousness-altering drugs by young people
dropped during the 1980’s, but increased again during the 1990s (Baron
&Kalsher, 2008). In fact, the result of One large survey indicated
that teenager’s use of many drugs – including, alcohol, cocaine,
marijuana, and nicotine (in cigarettes) – had increased substantially
(Johnston, O’Malley &Bochman, 1997).
Consumption of cannabis for medical purposes is legal with a
prescription in 15 states, and many states are in the process of
decriminalizing non-medical marijuana use. More than 97.5 million
Americans over the age of 12 have used illicit marijuana, and it is
considered by
many to be a benign recreational drug. However, evidence exists of
significant harm for some individuals, with 1 in 10 users developing
cannabis dependence Samhsa (2007). Furthermore, sixteen percent of all
substance abuse treatment admissions in the United States were for
cannabis-related disorders; this is second only to alcohol-related
disorders Samhsa (2007). It is estimated that more than 4 million
Americans meet Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV
diagnostic criteria for cannabis dependence. This figure has doubled
from 2001, and will likely continue to grow. Thus, an understanding of
the effects of cannabis on executive functions is likely to be of
widespread clinical relevance.
Some cannabis-related executive function deficits improve after
cessation of cannabis use Pope Bolla (2002), but growing evidence
suggests that other deficits persist after cannabis is discontinued.
This may hinder an individual’s ability to make the best use of
behavioural therapies and put him or her at greater risk for relapse to
cannabis use Adding to the complexity of this issue is the fact that
many factors can impact cannabis-related impairment and recovery of
executive functions, including age of onset of smoking cannabis, years
of use, and amount of regular use Grant (2003). This clinical conundrum
is compounded by the fact that treatment professionals may not be able
to easily identify patients with cannabis-related impairment in
executive functions without the benefit of neuropsychological
assessment.
Although there is convincing evidence that acute cannabis use generally
affects cognitive and motor functions, it is less clear as to whether
those deficits are short term and transient or if they are more
enduring. Previously published reports Pope et al., (2001; 2002) using
traditional neuropsychological assessment methods typically show a
resolution of deficits by 28 days of abstinence. However, as
neuroimaging technology has improved, more recent reports show subtle,
long-term effects of cannabis on cognition and brain functioning.
2.4. Tobacco and Academic Performance
A survey conducted by (Fatoye and Morakinyo, 1997) on substance use
amongst secondary school students in rural and urban communities in
South Western Nigeria with a sample size of 542 made up 266 males and
276 females found that the prevalence rate of current Smoking was 13.4%.
The study also found that the prevalence rate of Tobacco use was 26.4%.
And that the most commonly used alcoholic beverage was palm wine
(60.1%), followed by beer (20.8%), and then locally fermented wine and
locally distilled gin (14.7%).
Numerous studies have indicated an alarming increase in water pipe
smoking (Eissenberg T., Shihadeh A, 2009). Water pipes are known by
different names depending on the region of the World, These include, but
are not limited to, hookah, narghile, arghile, shisha, and
hubble-bubble. Research has established that water pipe tobacco smoke
contains and produces toxic substances similar to those produced by
cigarette smoke, including carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic volatile
aldehydes, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nicotine. (Eissenberg and
Shihadeh A, 2009) reported that a single water pipe tobacco smoking
session may involve the inhalation of 50 to 100 times the smoke volume
inhaled from a single cigarette.
Water pipe smokers who smoke once a day were found to have the same
plasma nicotine concentration as cigarette smokers who smoke 10
cigarettes a day. Evidence also suggests that water pipe smoking is
associated with negative health outcomes similar to those of cigarette
smoking and poor concentration levels due to its hallucinogen properties
since it contains the harmala alkaloids harman and norharman, which are
hallucinogens. Over the years researchers have identified, the
association between water pipe tobacco smoking and lung cancer,
respiratory illness, low birth-weight, blood pressure and heart rate
increase, and
poor academic performance. According to (Eneh and Stanley, 2004) the
signs range from physical, behavioural and psychological signs of drug
abuse. They include sudden weight loss or gain, disorderly conduct,
unusual smell on breath, body or clothing, unexplained need for money,
engaging in secretive or suspicious behaviours, sudden change in
friends, favourite hang-outs and hobbies, sudden mood swings,
irreparability anger outburst and unexplained change in personality.
Eneh and Stanley (2004) also outlined signs that come with different
drugs Marijuana use has the following signs; Glassy, red eyes; loud
talking, inappropriate laughter followed by sleepiness; loss of
interest, motivation; weight gain or loss while Depressants(including
Xanax, Valium, GHB) had Contracted pupils; drunk-like; difficulty
concentrating; clumsiness; poor judgment; slurred speech and sleepiness.
Stimulants (including amphetamines, cocaine, and crystal meth): Dilated
pupils; hyperactivity; euphoria; irritability; anxiety; excessive
talking followed by depression or excessive sleeping at odd times; may
go long periods of time without eating or sleeping; weight loss; dry
mouth and nose.
The link between school achievement and smoking behaviour is well
studied (Bryant et al., 2000; Ellison et al., 2001). The better students
do academically, the less likely they are to smoke (Bryant et al.,
2000; Young et al., 1986). Poor grades early on in life predicts
strongly increased tobacco use at a later date (Bryant et al., 2000) and
difficulties in quitting smoking. Furthermore, other studies have
indicated that onset of smoking may result in a decline in school
achievement. Bryant et al. (2000) tested this bi-directional
relationship between school achievement and smoking, among other
indicators such as alcohol use, school bonding and misbehaviour. They
argued that smoking might lead indirectly to poor school performance
(Bryant et al., 2000). Moreover, Ellickson et al. (2001) showed that
early smoking experimenters were at a higher risk of poor grades later
on.
Since the mid-1980s, the Member States have stepped up cooperation on
combating drug addiction and drug trafficking. Since 1990, European
Councils have adopted a variety of action plans and programs to provide a
comprehensive response to this phenomenon. The European Councils in
Cardiff (June 1998) and Vienna (December 1998) called on the Council,
the Commission and Parliament to draw up a new, comprehensive anti-drug
strategy to replace the 1995-1999 Action Plan. The Commission
communication is a follow-up to this request and sets out recent trends
in drug abuse and trafficking in the EU and the course the Union's
anti-drugs measures should take over the next five years.
The setting up of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction (EMCDDA) and the Europol Drugs Unit (replaced since 1 July
1999 by the European Police Office (Europol)) has led to a better
understanding of the drug phenomenon and simplified Member States'
cooperation on the collection and exchange of information. The
information provided by these two bodies in 1998 has made it possible to
identify a number of trends in consumption and trafficking. The use of
cannabis, still the most widely used drug in the EU, has levelled out,
while the use of amphetamines and misuse of medicines is on the
increase. As regards trafficking, the routes used by the various drugs
are well known, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the
Balkans often serving as the hub for heroin, cocaine and cannabis. The
EU is also a major producer of synthetic drugs. The plan for 2000-2004
identifies a number of priorities: Measures to counter the use and
production of cannabis, amphetamines and ecstasy; the introduction of
integrated projects to combat urban delinquency, especially among young
people.
Interest in social influence on adolescent smoking has conventionally
included family influence (Tyas et al., 2001). Social influences can be
described as the processes whereby people directly or indirectly
influence the thoughts, feelings and actions of others Social
influence constitutes social norms, modelling and perceived pressure
(Markham et al., 2004). Social norms are adolescents’ expectations of
people’s reactions to specific behaviour and the support that they
experience from others in carrying out a certain type of behaviour De
Vries (2000). Modelling as a term denotes perceiving a prevalence of
smoking among influential people and ‘pressure’ denotes an experience of
direct pressure to smoke. Social influence can be direct social norm
and perceived pressure or indirect modelling Markham (2004). Recently,
contextual variables at the macro level, such as the influence of the
neighbourhood, have also been shown to affect adolescent smoking Backer
(2003).
Levels of Drug and Substance Prevention
Primary prevention of substance abuse is preventing the initiation of
psychoactive substance use or delaying the age at which use begins (WHO,
2000:12). This is aimed at ensuring that drug abuse will not occur. It
aims at teaching the skills for dealing with inter and intra-personal
influences such as stress and peer pressure. The objective of primary
prevention is broadly to deter experimentation, encourage or provide
risk minimization within a population. Most primary prevention programs
are directed to elementary schools and children in general because there
is the realization that drug abuse is now beginning at early ages.
Primary prevention aims at emphasizing on the realistic risks associated
with drug and alcohol abuse. In order to formulate a realistic primary
prevention program the following should be considered.
The program’s must provide knowledge on effects of drug abuse, life
skills like communication, assertiveness, decision making and coping
social skills. Secondary prevention is the intervention aimed at
individuals in the early stages of psychoactive substance use. The aim
is to prevent substance abuse from becoming a problem thereby
limiting the degree of damage to the individual (World Drug Report,
2000:109). It’s aimed at identifying a determination or modifying for
the better drug abuse at the earliest moment possible. It aims at
discontinuation of infrequent drug abuse, increasing opportunities for
intervention to prevent progression of the problem and individual at
risk rather than the entire society. This prevention can be done by
instituting early detection programs in schools, workplace and other
areas where drug abuse takes place.
Tertiary prevention aims at ending dependence and minimizing problems
resulting from use/abuse. This type of prevention strives to enable the
individual to achieve and maintain improved levels of functioning and
health. Sometimes tertiary prevention is called rehabilitation and
relapse prevention (WHO, 2000:12). It’s aimed at preventing drug abuse
related to death; reduce the negative impact of an already established
problem by restoring and reducing other related complications. It also
aims at relapse withdrawal of symptoms and preventing the retaking of
substances after achieving abstinence.
Barbiturates and Academic Performance
It has been observed that much of substance use among youths take place
in schools. The incidence of barbiturates use among students is high
(Eneh& Stanley, 2004). Barbiturates use during adolescence is almost
always a social experience and a learned behaviour (Swaid 1988). One of
the important psychological phenomena observed during this period of
adolescence is experimentation (Graham, Turk &Verhulst 1999). Youth
engaging in drugs and having low grades in school often feel misplaced
and judged by the society, this is because the community educates a
child so as to assist him or her and in future the child can give back
to the community but once one starts getting involved in drug
activities, there is no longer hope for that child since drugs are
linked to misery and poverty hence one cannot 25
advance. Crime increases due to unemployment when these individuals are
at home, social norms are broken and young girls may engage in other
activities such as prostitution with an aim of making money World Drug
Report (2002).Youth start experimenting with this drugs before they
start using them, they are commonly given in the major youth joints
where young people meet, after they have experimented most go to the
next level which is regular use of this drugs and they soon develop
risky behaviours which are far different from their normal behaviours,
once they are dependent on this drugs the enter the final stage which is
drug abuse.
The use of prescription stimulants among college-age adults to enhance
academic performance is increasing. However, the extent of usage across
health care programs is unknown. There have been numerous studies on the
use of illicit drugs in undergraduate colleges and by health care
professionals; however, the literature is lacking in studies that
explore health care professions students using prescription drugs
specifically for academic performance enhancement and studying purposes.
Wolaver (2005) Methylphenidate and amphetamine, dextran and phentermine
are reported as being used frequently to increase alertness during
periods of study. Stimulant drugs, primarily prescribed for patients
with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder are also being used across
college campuses.
Several theories have been discussed in the literature regarding reasons
for substance abuse in general. Renna (2006) found that Individuals may
begin abusing drugs due to anxiety and fears of failure. These
substances may temporarily mask these fears by creating a feeling of
indifference towards the high expectations of society. For healthcare
students, tension and stress are especially high due to intense
competition, challenging curricula, and dealing with patient
interactions. There have been numerous studies regarding the prevalence
of prescription stimulant use among college students. In research
performed by DeSantis (2000),
rates of stimulant use varied from 4.1% to 35.5%. Another study
describes 382 (8.3%) of the 4,850 respondents had used illicit
prescription stimulants in their life-time, and 269 (5.9%) had used
illicit prescription stimulants in the past year.
This same study also found that around three-quarters of illicit
prescription stimulant users reported taking amphetamine in the past
year, and approximately one in four reported using methylphenidate
products. In this study, 48 students (18.0%) used methylphenidate.
Another 2004 study found 6.9% lifetime prevalence in college students, a
past-year prevalence of 4.1%, and a past-month prevalence of 2.9%. One
study found that 17% of men and 11% of women use prescription
stimulants. A study published in 2008 confirmed higher rates among males
at 39% versus females at 30%, while another 2008 study came to the
conclusion that there is no difference between genders. DeSantis et al
(2000) found that 94% of stimulant user were Caucasian and McCabe et al
(2004) also found highest rates in Caucasians. Teter et al (2002)
reported that college students were more likely to use prescription
stimulants illegally
There are several theoretical motives behind stimulant drug use.
DeSantis et al (2000) found that 72% of the college students surveyed
were taking prescription stimulant drugs to stay awake to study, and 66%
were using them to concentrate on their work. Other reasons included to
aid in memorization (36%), to stay awake and have fun (22%), and to
make work more interesting (12%). During qualitative interviews,
DeSantis et al (2000) found that alcohol, marijuana, prescription
barbiturates, and cocaine were used almost exclusively to have fun.
Medications were used predominantly for the more serious pursuit of
getting good grades.
Carroll (2004) found that college students were using stimulant drugs as
study aids as well as for recreation-al purposes. Of those surveyed
96.8% were using stimulants to study longer, 96.8% to stay awake, 83.9%
to study better, and 27.6% to improve memory. Teter et al (2002)
revealed tha t65.2% of their survey population used prescription
stimulants to help with concentration, 59.8% to help study, and 47.5% to
increase alertness. Teter (2002) also found that students who started
using prescription stimulants during college were more likely to use
them to improve con-centration (70.0%) as compared to those who started
before college (55.0%).The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
prevalence of prescription stimulant use and thus increase awareness of
the problem. Knowing which prescription stimulant drugs are most
commonly abused for other-than-intended uses, as well as the motives
behind abuse, can potentially help universities implement prevention
policies and educational strategies.
As an academic discipline, Luppicini (2005) asserts that educational
technology prepares individuals by helping them acquire a deeper
understanding and mastery of learning resources: messages, people,
materials, devices, techniques and settings. This implies that it
analyzes and provides solutions to problems through research, theory,
design, production, evaluation, utilization. The focus is on effective
processes to facilitate learning using technologies and understanding
the impacts of technology on learners and organizations (DeVaney and
Butler2009).The National Policy on Education (NPE 2004) conceptualizes
technology education as that type of education that leads to the
acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as the basic
scientific knowledge.
THE EFFECT OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study is to look into the effects of drug abuse, its
application on students in some selected secondary schools in Egor
Local Government Area of Edo State. In the light of the above topic or
subject matter, attempts were made to find out the drugs commonly
abused by students and the reasons why they are abused. As a result, the
following questions were asked as a basis for our finding.
1. What is drug abuse?
2. Why do you think children abuse drug?
3. What are some of the effects of drug abuse on the user?
4. How do drugs affect the performance of students in schools?
5. As teachers and parents, what steps have you taken in controlling
drug abuse?
Literature was reviewed on the topic using relevant authors such as
textbooks, journals and newspapers etc. Questionnaires were also made
to collect vital information about the research study. Based on the
findings, it was gathered that students who abuse drug do it because of
friends, to make them bold. CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF STUDY
A drug can be defined as any chemical solid, liquid or amorphous
substance derived from plants, animals or mineral resources which is
applied externally or internally to cause some desirable effects.
Also, drug can be defined as a substance which by its chemical
nature has an effect to open the body of higher nervous system (the
mind) the effect of drug could be positive or negative.
POSITIVE EFFECTS OF DRUG
Drug when properly used or taking into a living organism, produces
the desired result, and may modify one or more of its functional parts;
it is
usually prescribed by a medical practitioner. Such drugs or substances
are either of vegetables, animals or mineral origin. They could be
prepared for the human body that that produces the desired results into
the treatment of diseases and ailment.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF DRUG (DRUG ABUSE)
The negative effect of drug is also referred to as drug abuse. Drug
abuse is therefore defined as the excessive consumption of a drug by any
individual. Drug abuse results when there is self injection or from the
approved medical in a manner that deviates from the approved medical
usage. Drug abuse is involved in the following:
1. Excessive use of drugs and use of unprescribed drugs.
2. Use of hard drugs.
Excessive use of drugs and use of unprescribed drugs
This is when an individual takes in drugs without following the
current prescription of the doctor.
Use of hard drugs
Hard drugs are capable of affecting the state of the body or mind
by either depressing or stimulating the central nervous system or
producing other biochemical harm to the society at large.
According to Agwusike (1990), drug abuse is the use of drugs above
the prescribed dosage and for the purpose other than for the original
prescription.
Adi also defined drug abuse as self treatment of physical ailment
which could result from ignorance. The society of doctors and
pharmacists frowned at the uncontrollable ways and manners in which
the drugs are sold to the public in our markets, and medical stores
which
are contributory factors to drug abuse. Uncivilized and developed
nations,
drugs other than those for common pain, cough and cold remedies are
sold in a doctor’s prescription.
Drug abuse could be viewed from different perspectives depending on
the focus under view. It could be described as a non medical use of
drug,
which may cause harm to the individual and the society. These could be
drugs which do not conform to the society’s cultural norm of a society.
People generally misuse or abuse drugs because the substance alter
the mode of behaviour of an individual. Over the years, the use of hard
drugs like tobacco, sedatives, Indian hemp, cocoa leaves, alcohol,
heroine,
morphine, cocaine to mention but a few have drastically been on the
increase especially in this part of the world (Africa). The dependence
or
addition, which is psychological, is characterized by the compulsion to
take drugs on a continuous or periodic basis in order to experience its
mental effect.
The history of drug abuse could also be traced to the urge of man
wanting to have power to relieve tension, satisfy his needs obtained
occasional release from problems and the need to find a cure to some
ailments, all these have contributed to drug use and abuse. The use of
drugs by man is as old as man himself. Man consumed the juices of
opium poppies long before there were narcotics, such as morphine and
heroine, man chewed cocoa leaf long before cocaine was extracted from
both American cocoa plants. Man dried peyote castro long before they
synthesized. Throughout recorded history, drug has been in use long
before this medical and recreational intoxicating and self induced
relief
from psychic pain and emotion. The early history of drug is inseparable
from the early history of medicine.
Most traditional drugs are always misused or abused because of lack
of dosage to determine the quantity required by the users. The
expiration
period is never stated, substances that are today referred to as drugs
originated from herbs and other natural chemicals, caffeine, which is
the
main ingredient in tea or coffee and nicotine as in tobacco or
cigarette, is
widely used as mind stimulant and tension relieving drugs. They are
considered socially acceptable and used recreationally.
However, they produce dependence and are also known to cause
harm. Other drugs, although are used medically for the treatment of one
ailment or the other, may also cause problems for the individual.
Examples of such drugs are psychoactive drugs or sedatives like valium
and mogadon which are sleeping pills and pain killers which are
medically prescribed but may be abuse thus causing dependence and
harm.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
Drugs can be classified into the following viz;
1. Stimulants such as tobacco, cocaine or coffee.
2. Depressant such as alcohol and other substances of depressants
such as heroine, morphine and opiates.
3. Hallucinogens.
STIMULANTS
This kind of drug stimulates the nervous system of an individual to
behave extraordinarily leading such individual to misbehave. The health
implication is that the individual is acting on the influence of a
cultivating
factor such as tobacco, cocaine etc. Common incidence that happens
around us today is on the influence of these stimulants and if care is
not
taken, could lead to mental disorder.
DEPRESSANTS
These are sleep inducing drugs. They are used to calm anxious
and restless subjects. These are barbiturates and non barbiturates that
are capable of producing some degree of depression of the central
nervous system (CNS). They are the most dangerous drugs.
HALLUCINOGENS
These are substances that produce a state of altered perception
and other alteration of mood such as illusion, hallucination. Examples
of
these drugs are lysergic acid diethyl lamine (LSD) phylogibin (extracted
from innobrowi) magaline. Drug abuse has caused great problem to
humanity. A lot of damages have been done to human health as a result
of drug use and abuse and these damages could be mental, physical,
emotional and psychological so that it has in a long way reduce life
span
of man. There are also social problems associated with drug use and
abuse. They include high rate of crime, deformity either physically or
mentally and affect unborn children whose mothers abuse drugs when
they are pregnant. It can even lead to high rate of infant mortality in
unborn babies or pregnant mothers when giving birth to mongoloid
children.
Great misfortunes have resulted as a result of drug abuse e.g. series
of road accidents that have claimed lives of men. Drug addicts when
severely under the influence of drugs walked along the street half naked
and perpetual acts like rape, assassination and murders.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Drug abuse is a pandemic problem even on the increases in an
alarming rate in Nigeria today. About two decades ago, incidence of drug
trafficking in Nigeria was low and abuse was minimal, but today drug has
destroyed and killed many people in the society. Students in our
secondary schools are not left out in this act. In view of this, the
research
is embarked on to highlighting the i8lls of drug abuse.
Over the years, it has been observed that students from secondary
schools in Egor local government area of Edo state are in the form of
drug
addiction or the other as well as being involved in drug abuse. This
research is therefore designed to view immediate causes and health
implication of drug abuse among students in some selected secondary
schools in Egor.
The researcher hoped that this research work would help the
teachers, school authorities and the society at large to minimize the
use
and effects of drugs in schools. Also, this study will encourage the
government of Egor local government area to establish drug
rehabilitation
centres with the help of the ministry of health and drug inspection unit
(DIU) to care for addicts.
PURPOSE OF STUDY
The purpose of this study is to highlight the causes of drug abuse
among students in some selected secondary schools in Egor local
government area of Edo state by random sampling thus by taking from
the beginning, middle and deep end of the local government. Although
the4rer are books, magazines, articles and newspapers reports on drug
abuse, no in-depth research has been conducted on the incidence of drug
abuse in students and to recommend appropriate solutions to if possible.
The researcher intends to engage the following:
a. Find out the main causes of drug abuse on students.
b. Determine the effects of these drugs on the students.
c. Find out the influence of drugs on the students and the effect of
drug abuse on the society.
d. Find out the reasons why students abuse drugs.
e. Find out the overall effects of the abuse of drugs on the students.
This study might also stimulate the researcher into areas of drug
education or some aspects of drug use and abuse among
students.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
This study is aimed at investigating drug abuse and its health
implication on students in secondary schools. The following therefore
are
some of the objectives at the end of the study.
1. Students would be informed on the negative effects of drug use and
abuse.
2. Parents and teachers will be acquainted of their roles in curbing
drug abuse from early childhood.
3. More researchers will be encouraged to carryout research work on
the causes of drug abuse and its remedy.
4. Government will be able to make policies and laws that will prohibit
the use of dangerous drugs.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The importance of this study is to provide resource materials for
many that want to have deeper knowledge abou8t the causes, effect and
control of drug abuse.
This research work will encourage organization like NAFDAC, NDLEA,
health organizations like WHO, SHE and government parastatals to
establish drug rehabilitation centres to help victims of drug abuse.
Moreso, the significance of this study is to outline its health
implication amongst secondary school students, which will be centred on
the following:
1. To identify the causes of drug abuse among secondary school
students.
2. To help reduce the hazard of drug abuse to minimum and to
enlighten the teachers on how to educate their students and the
society at large.
3. To reduce the incidence of rape among secondary school students.
4. To alert the government on how to control the abuse of drugs since
the short term and long term effects are disastrous.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
The following are the basic assumptions made by the researcher.
a) That the habit of addicting to drugs begins from the environment
the child grew up in.
b) Students who use drugs are prone to disease attack.
c) Students use drugs and abuse them because they are easily
available.
d) Use of drugs can lead to psychosis and premature death.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In the course of carrying out this research work, the research will
attempt to proffer solutions to the following questions.
a) What are the classes of drugs?
b) What drugs are commonly abused by students?
c) Why do students use drugs?
d) What are the causes of drug abuse?
e) What are the health implications of drugs abuse?
HYPOTHESIS
In order to achieve a purposeful result in this research, it is
necessary
to declare the following statements.
1. Students engage in drug abuse in an attempt to cope with the
opposite sex.
2. Most students abuse drugs in order to gain absolute self confidence
amongst fellow students in class.
3. Drug abuse among students results from influence from friends and
peer group pressure.
4. Students who abuse drugs are sure to suffer from mental,
psychological and emotional problems.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study was carried out in some selected secondary schools in
Egor local government area of Edo state. The schools covered for this
research include: Uselu secondary school, Eghosa grammar school all in
Edo state. These schools were selected because of their past and present
records of drug abuse. Effects of Drug abuse on Academic Performance
the above shows the relationship between the dependent and independent
variables of the study. As shown in the figure, the academic
performance, which was the dependent variable, could be affected by drug
abuse such as alcohol, marijuana, tobacco and
barbiturates among others. If students abuse drugs such as alcohol,
marijuana, tobacco and barbiturates then this will directly impact
negatively on their academic performance. Easy access to drugs at home
or at school influence whether a student is likely to be an addict.
The culture of the people in the community and around the school
directly impacts the student’s life. Excessive alcohol consumption,
especially illicit brews are common in the county, therefore this is
tied to students taking the habit from peers and parents and bonding
with other drug users in the society. However, a student’s attitude
towards drug abuse, impacted by education and knowledge can contribute
to them deciding not to or to take the drugs anyway. The effects of
these variables on the academic performance in colleges could also be
influenced by cultural factors, such community acceptance or lack of
intervention, which was the intervening variable of the study.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters; the first chapter is the
introduction that gives a general overview of the research problem. This
chapter further provides a background to the problem, a problem
statement as well as the objectives and assumptions of the study.
Literature that is relevant to this field of study is reviewed in
chapter two to establish the influence of drugs on students’ academic
performance. Chapter three examines the methodology that will be used to
collect and analyze data. Chapter four deals with data analysis while
chapter five focuses on conclusions and recommendations as well as
further proposed areas of research. CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This section consists of review of related literature. The section
covers introduction, literature on the causes of drug abuse amongst
Students, Nature and extent of drug abuse by Students. Then literature
is reviewed on the measures taken against drug abuse by the schools,
local community as well as both local and county government, effects of
drugs, levels of drug and substance prevention, policies against drug
use in Kenya and social effects of drug abuse and poor academic
performance. After this the theoretical framework and conceptual
framework of the study are presented. Alcoholism and Academic
Performance
A large number of studies tried to identify whether there are direct
and/or indirect causal links between consumption of addictive substances
and poor educational attainment. Most intuitively, alcohol and drug
consumption may have some detrimental effects on pupils’ cognitive
abilities, for instance, by decreasing their ability to concentrate.
Concerning the indirect channels, drug and alcohol consumption may for
instance be responsible for shifting individuals’ resources away from
schooling. Additionally, it may undermine students’ progress by making
them less likely to attend classes or keep up with their studies.
Finally, psychologists argue that heavy drinking may lower individuals’
expectations about their academic performance Deasetal, (2000). This
effect could be driven by a shift in students’ peers when they engage in
abusive alcohol consumption. There is still no consensus in the
literature concerning the existence of a causal link between consumption
of addictive
substances and educational outcomes. On the one hand, some studies
provide evidence that heavy drinking and drug consumption lead to a
lower schooling performance. DeSimone and Wolver (2005) find that by
introducing a large vector of covariates which control for heterogeneity
between alcohol consumers and non-consumers, the negative causal
relation between alcohol use and academic performance re-mains
significant for heavy drinking. In line with these results, Williamset
al (2003), report that heavy drinking has a negative impact on schooling
achievements by reducing the time spent studying.
Renna (2006) finds that heavy alcohol consumption has a negative effect
on the probability of graduating from a high school rather than
receiving a general education diploma (GED). However, these results are
subject to valid criticisms since they ignore or only imperfectly
control for the potential selection bias. Some studies are not able to
reject the absence of a causal effect of drugs and alcohol consumption
on educational performance. For instance, many physiological studies do
not provide robust evidence on the detrimental effects of drugs Solowij,
(1998). In the economic literature, Dee and Evans (2003) conclude that
alcohol use by teenagers does not have any significant impact on their
education. Similarly, Koch and Ribar (2001) demonstrate that the actual
effects of youthful drinking on students’ success are likely to be
small. Finally a recent paper by McCaffrey et al (2008) shows that
marijuana abuse does not have any significant influence on high school
dropout.
The major difficulty in the identification of a causal effect of
addictive substances consumption on educational outcomes is the fact
that students who regularly consume alcohol and drugs do not constitute a
random sample of the population of students. They tend to present some
characteristics that systematically differ from those of students who
abstain from drug and alcohol consumption. For instance, this behaviour
is negatively associated with family income and educational background
(Deaton, 2003). Suppose that some parents do not
encourage their children to place great value on education. If they
provide poor quality supervision to their children including with
respect to alcohol and drugs consumption, then the empirical association
between education and the consumption of these substances would be
spurious. Also, more impatient children are both more likely to smoke
and drink alcohol Sutter et al (2010) and to procrastinate with their
school working duties Bettinger et al (2007). Thus, it is difficult to
disentangle the causal impact of consumption of drugs and alcohol per
someone’s educational achievement. To account for this endogeneity
problem Duarte et al(2006) and Duarte and Escario (2006) employ a
bivariate probity model to jointly estimate the determinants of
schooling and drinking/smoking decisions. Their results indicate a
negative causal relationship between alcohol consumption and schooling
attendance. However, this study can be criticised on the grounds that it
relies on the availability of a valid instrument, i.e. Factor that has
some bearing on the decision to use alcohol and drug, but that is
unrelated to schooling. Renna (2008) and DeSimone (2005) employ a
two-stage probity model to deal with the problem of endogeneity of
alcohol use.
A common and comprehensive measure of students’ learning is Grade Point
Average (GPA). GPA is an important outcome because it is a key
determinant of college admissions decisions and of job quality for those
who do not attend college. Only a few studies have explored the
association between alcohol use and GPA. Wolaver (2002) and Williams,
Powell, and Wechsler (2003) have studied this association among college
students, while DeSimone and Wolaver (2005) have investigated the
effects of underage drinking on GPA during high school. The latter study
found a negative association between drinking and grades, although it
is not clear whether the effects are causal or the result of unobserved
heterogeneity.
Understanding the relationship between teenage drinking and high school
grades is pertinent given the high prevalence of alcohol use among this
age cohort and recent research on adolescent brain development
suggesting that early heavy alcohol use may have negative effects on the
physical development of brain structure (Brown, Tapert, Granholm and
Delis, 2000). By affecting the quality of learning, underage drinking
could have an impact on both college admissions and job quality
independent of its effects on years of schooling or school completion.
Alcohol use could conceivably affect a student’s quality of learning and
academic performance regardless of its impact on school completion.
This possibility is suggested by Renna (2008), who uses a research
design similar to that used by Dee and Evans (2003) and finds that
although binge drinking does not affect high school completion rates, it
does significantly increase the probability that a student graduates
with a GED rather than a high school diploma
By contrast, more recent economic studies that arguably use better
estimation methods have found that drinking has modest or negligible
effects on educational attainment. Dee and Evans (2003) studied the
effects of teen drinking on high school completion, college entrance,
and college persistence. Employing changes in the legal drinking age
across states over time as an instrument, they found no significant
effect of teen drinking on educational attainment. Koch and Ribar (2001)
reached a similar conclusion applying family fixed effects and
instrumental variables to NLSY data. Though they found that drinking had
a significant negative effect on the amount of schooling completed
among men, the effect was small. Finally, Chatterji (2006) used a
bivariate model of alcohol use and educational attainment to gauge the
sensitivity of the estimates to various assumptions about the
correlation of unobservable determinants of these variables. She
concluded that there is no evidence of a
causal relationship between alcohol use and educational attainment when
the correlation coefficient is fixed at plausible levels.
Drinking could affect learning through a variety of mechanisms. Recent
neurological research suggests that underage drinking can impair
learning directly by causing alterations in the structure and function
of the developing brain with consequences reaching far beyond
adolescence Swartz welder, (2004). Negative effects of alcohol use can
emerge in areas such as planning and executive functioning, memory,
spatial operations, and attention Marijuana and Academic Performance
According to (Spooner, 2005) the social environment is a powerful
influence on health and social outcomes. In this context Marijuana use
and related problems result from the complex interplay of the individual
and the environment whereby social institutions or structures can
influence the environment in a manner that can influence drug use and
related problems. Societal structures include government policies,
taxation systems, laws and service systems such as welfare, education,
health and justice. As such increased attention to the ‘social’
determinants of drug use is required. In terms of increasing problematic
Marijuana use Wilkinson notes the rapid growth in widening income
differences during the 1980s and the rise in heroin use.
Adverse socio-economic circumstances may lead to psychological and
emotional damage partly through increasing levels of stress brought on
by money worries, unemployment and housing but essentially through a
lack of choices. The social and economic environment establishes the
context in which domestic life has to cope and cannot be separated from a
range of what are normally seen as family problems. The quality of the
social life of a society is one of the most powerful determinants of
health and this is closely
related to degrees of income equality. However income equality is not
the only determinant. Also important are psychosocial relationships for
the subjective quality of life that people experience. Sources of social
stress, poor social networks, low self-esteem, and high rates of
depression, anxiety and a lack of control all have a fundamental impact
on life experience. In this sense ‘unhealthy behaviours such as
addiction may in part be explained by the need to consume psychoactive
substances for their psychosocial effects, particularly where they are
used to counter stress and reduce anxiety.
Behaviour has been found to lead to the trying out of new experiences
such as drug and sex, sometimes with dire consequence for the
adolescents. One widely accepted definition of drugs states that drugs
are compounds that, because of their chemical structure, change the
functioning of biological systems (Levinthal, 2000).The biological
systems include respiration, growth, excretion, locomotion,
reproduction, etc. The effects may be beneficial as in the case when
drugs commonly referred to as medicines (e.g. Panadol, antibiotics,
cough mixture, etc.) are used as prescribed by the doctor. Some other
drugs have been found to be capable of producing effects that are not
beneficial but harmful (Oloyede, 1996). The term drug abuse, applies
only to instances in which people take drugs purely to change their
moods, and in which they experience impaired behaviour or social
functioning as a result of doing so (Wallace & Fisher 2003).
Unfortunately, when people consume consciousness-altering drugs on a
regular basis, they often develop dependence – they come to need the
drug and cannot function without it. According to (Odejide, Ohaeri,
Adelekan and Ihuesan 2005), psychoactive drug use is a common problem
among adolescents especially for the socially acceptable drugs like
alcohol and cigarettes. A survey of secondary school students in Ilorin,
Kwara State reported that 12% were currently using alcohol (Abiodun,
Adelekan, Ogunremi, Oni &Obayan, 2005). In a study
of out-of – school adolescents aged 11 to 20 in Jos, found a lifetime
consumption of alcohol reported by 38.7% of the respondents (Obot,
Ibagam, Ojiji & Wai, 2001).
Having realized that majority of Marijuana use start during the
adolescence stage especially so for the ‘gateway’ drugs, alcohol and
cigarettes, the need to check this bad practice in the society is
important. Alcohol and cigarettes are described ‘as gateway’ because
they are usually, the first drugs that are used before other drugs are
tried out (Indiana Preventive Resource Centre, 2003). Drug abuse by
students can lead to sharp decline in their academic performance,
increase reports of truancy and expulsion from school. It can also lead
to addiction increased desire for drugs without which normal life
processes is disturbed, and increased appetite and libido. Other vices
such as stealing, fighting and gambling may also be caused by drug abuse
as a result of alteration in the brain chemistry of the abusers.
Continued use of a drug over a prolonged period of time often leads to
drug tolerance, Physiological reaction in which the body requires larger
and larger doses in order to experience the same effects. In some
cases, tolerance for one drug increases tolerance for another; this is
known as cross-tolerance (Baron & Kalsher, 2008). Patterns of drug
use may vary greatly around the world and overtime. In the United
States, the use of many consciousness-altering drugs by young people
dropped during the 1980’s, but increased again during the 1990s (Baron
&Kalsher, 2008). In fact, the result of One large survey indicated
that teenager’s use of many drugs – including, alcohol, cocaine,
marijuana, and nicotine (in cigarettes) – had increased substantially
(Johnston, O’Malley &Bochman, 1997).
Consumption of cannabis for medical purposes is legal with a
prescription in 15 states, and many states are in the process of
decriminalizing non-medical marijuana use. More than 97.5 million
Americans over the age of 12 have used illicit marijuana, and it is
considered by
many to be a benign recreational drug. However, evidence exists of
significant harm for some individuals, with 1 in 10 users developing
cannabis dependence Samhsa (2007). Furthermore, sixteen percent of all
substance abuse treatment admissions in the United States were for
cannabis-related disorders; this is second only to alcohol-related
disorders Samhsa (2007). It is estimated that more than 4 million
Americans meet Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV
diagnostic criteria for cannabis dependence. This figure has doubled
from 2001, and will likely continue to grow. Thus, an understanding of
the effects of cannabis on executive functions is likely to be of
widespread clinical relevance.
Some cannabis-related executive function deficits improve after
cessation of cannabis use Pope Bolla (2002), but growing evidence
suggests that other deficits persist after cannabis is discontinued.
This may hinder an individual’s ability to make the best use of
behavioural therapies and put him or her at greater risk for relapse to
cannabis use Adding to the complexity of this issue is the fact that
many factors can impact cannabis-related impairment and recovery of
executive functions, including age of onset of smoking cannabis, years
of use, and amount of regular use Grant (2003). This clinical conundrum
is compounded by the fact that treatment professionals may not be able
to easily identify patients with cannabis-related impairment in
executive functions without the benefit of neuropsychological
assessment.
Although there is convincing evidence that acute cannabis use generally
affects cognitive and motor functions, it is less clear as to whether
those deficits are short term and transient or if they are more
enduring. Previously published reports Pope et al., (2001; 2002) using
traditional neuropsychological assessment methods typically show a
resolution of deficits by 28 days of abstinence. However, as
neuroimaging technology has improved, more recent reports show subtle,
long-term effects of cannabis on cognition and brain functioning.
2.4. Tobacco and Academic Performance
A survey conducted by (Fatoye and Morakinyo, 1997) on substance use
amongst secondary school students in rural and urban communities in
South Western Nigeria with a sample size of 542 made up 266 males and
276 females found that the prevalence rate of current Smoking was 13.4%.
The study also found that the prevalence rate of Tobacco use was 26.4%.
And that the most commonly used alcoholic beverage was palm wine
(60.1%), followed by beer (20.8%), and then locally fermented wine and
locally distilled gin (14.7%).
Numerous studies have indicated an alarming increase in water pipe
smoking (Eissenberg T., Shihadeh A, 2009). Water pipes are known by
different names depending on the region of the World, These include, but
are not limited to, hookah, narghile, arghile, shisha, and
hubble-bubble. Research has established that water pipe tobacco smoke
contains and produces toxic substances similar to those produced by
cigarette smoke, including carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic volatile
aldehydes, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nicotine. (Eissenberg and
Shihadeh A, 2009) reported that a single water pipe tobacco smoking
session may involve the inhalation of 50 to 100 times the smoke volume
inhaled from a single cigarette.
Water pipe smokers who smoke once a day were found to have the same
plasma nicotine concentration as cigarette smokers who smoke 10
cigarettes a day. Evidence also suggests that water pipe smoking is
associated with negative health outcomes similar to those of cigarette
smoking and poor concentration levels due to its hallucinogen properties
since it contains the harmala alkaloids harman and norharman, which are
hallucinogens. Over the years researchers have identified, the
association between water pipe tobacco smoking and lung cancer,
respiratory illness, low birth-weight, blood pressure and heart rate
increase, and
poor academic performance. According to (Eneh and Stanley, 2004) the
signs range from physical, behavioural and psychological signs of drug
abuse. They include sudden weight loss or gain, disorderly conduct,
unusual smell on breath, body or clothing, unexplained need for money,
engaging in secretive or suspicious behaviours, sudden change in
friends, favourite hang-outs and hobbies, sudden mood swings,
irreparability anger outburst and unexplained change in personality.
Eneh and Stanley (2004) also outlined signs that come with different
drugs Marijuana use has the following signs; Glassy, red eyes; loud
talking, inappropriate laughter followed by sleepiness; loss of
interest, motivation; weight gain or loss while Depressants(including
Xanax, Valium, GHB) had Contracted pupils; drunk-like; difficulty
concentrating; clumsiness; poor judgment; slurred speech and sleepiness.
Stimulants (including amphetamines, cocaine, and crystal meth): Dilated
pupils; hyperactivity; euphoria; irritability; anxiety; excessive
talking followed by depression or excessive sleeping at odd times; may
go long periods of time without eating or sleeping; weight loss; dry
mouth and nose.
The link between school achievement and smoking behaviour is well
studied (Bryant et al., 2000; Ellison et al., 2001). The better students
do academically, the less likely they are to smoke (Bryant et al.,
2000; Young et al., 1986). Poor grades early on in life predicts
strongly increased tobacco use at a later date (Bryant et al., 2000) and
difficulties in quitting smoking. Furthermore, other studies have
indicated that onset of smoking may result in a decline in school
achievement. Bryant et al. (2000) tested this bi-directional
relationship between school achievement and smoking, among other
indicators such as alcohol use, school bonding and misbehaviour. They
argued that smoking might lead indirectly to poor school performance
(Bryant et al., 2000). Moreover, Ellickson et al. (2001) showed that
early smoking experimenters were at a higher risk of poor grades later
on.
Since the mid-1980s, the Member States have stepped up cooperation on
combating drug addiction and drug trafficking. Since 1990, European
Councils have adopted a variety of action plans and programs to provide a
comprehensive response to this phenomenon. The European Councils in
Cardiff (June 1998) and Vienna (December 1998) called on the Council,
the Commission and Parliament to draw up a new, comprehensive anti-drug
strategy to replace the 1995-1999 Action Plan. The Commission
communication is a follow-up to this request and sets out recent trends
in drug abuse and trafficking in the EU and the course the Union's
anti-drugs measures should take over the next five years.
The setting up of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction (EMCDDA) and the Europol Drugs Unit (replaced since 1 July
1999 by the European Police Office (Europol)) has led to a better
understanding of the drug phenomenon and simplified Member States'
cooperation on the collection and exchange of information. The
information provided by these two bodies in 1998 has made it possible to
identify a number of trends in consumption and trafficking. The use of
cannabis, still the most widely used drug in the EU, has levelled out,
while the use of amphetamines and misuse of medicines is on the
increase. As regards trafficking, the routes used by the various drugs
are well known, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the
Balkans often serving as the hub for heroin, cocaine and cannabis. The
EU is also a major producer of synthetic drugs. The plan for 2000-2004
identifies a number of priorities: Measures to counter the use and
production of cannabis, amphetamines and ecstasy; the introduction of
integrated projects to combat urban delinquency, especially among young
people.
Interest in social influence on adolescent smoking has conventionally
included family influence (Tyas et al., 2001). Social influences can be
described as the processes whereby people directly or indirectly
influence the thoughts, feelings and actions of others Social
influence constitutes social norms, modelling and perceived pressure
(Markham et al., 2004). Social norms are adolescents’ expectations of
people’s reactions to specific behaviour and the support that they
experience from others in carrying out a certain type of behaviour De
Vries (2000). Modelling as a term denotes perceiving a prevalence of
smoking among influential people and ‘pressure’ denotes an experience of
direct pressure to smoke. Social influence can be direct social norm
and perceived pressure or indirect modelling Markham (2004). Recently,
contextual variables at the macro level, such as the influence of the
neighbourhood, have also been shown to affect adolescent smoking Backer
(2003).
Levels of Drug and Substance Prevention
Primary prevention of substance abuse is preventing the initiation of
psychoactive substance use or delaying the age at which use begins (WHO,
2000:12). This is aimed at ensuring that drug abuse will not occur. It
aims at teaching the skills for dealing with inter and intra-personal
influences such as stress and peer pressure. The objective of primary
prevention is broadly to deter experimentation, encourage or provide
risk minimization within a population. Most primary prevention programs
are directed to elementary schools and children in general because there
is the realization that drug abuse is now beginning at early ages.
Primary prevention aims at emphasizing on the realistic risks associated
with drug and alcohol abuse. In order to formulate a realistic primary
prevention program the following should be considered.
The program’s must provide knowledge on effects of drug abuse, life
skills like communication, assertiveness, decision making and coping
social skills. Secondary prevention is the intervention aimed at
individuals in the early stages of psychoactive substance use. The aim
is to prevent substance abuse from becoming a problem thereby
limiting the degree of damage to the individual (World Drug Report,
2000:109). It’s aimed at identifying a determination or modifying for
the better drug abuse at the earliest moment possible. It aims at
discontinuation of infrequent drug abuse, increasing opportunities for
intervention to prevent progression of the problem and individual at
risk rather than the entire society. This prevention can be done by
instituting early detection programs in schools, workplace and other
areas where drug abuse takes place.
Tertiary prevention aims at ending dependence and minimizing problems
resulting from use/abuse. This type of prevention strives to enable the
individual to achieve and maintain improved levels of functioning and
health. Sometimes tertiary prevention is called rehabilitation and
relapse prevention (WHO, 2000:12). It’s aimed at preventing drug abuse
related to death; reduce the negative impact of an already established
problem by restoring and reducing other related complications. It also
aims at relapse withdrawal of symptoms and preventing the retaking of
substances after achieving abstinence.
Barbiturates and Academic Performance
It has been observed that much of substance use among youths take place
in schools. The incidence of barbiturates use among students is high
(Eneh& Stanley, 2004). Barbiturates use during adolescence is almost
always a social experience and a learned behaviour (Swaid 1988). One of
the important psychological phenomena observed during this period of
adolescence is experimentation (Graham, Turk &Verhulst 1999). Youth
engaging in drugs and having low grades in school often feel misplaced
and judged by the society, this is because the community educates a
child so as to assist him or her and in future the child can give back
to the community but once one starts getting involved in drug
activities, there is no longer hope for that child since drugs are
linked to misery and poverty hence one cannot 25
advance. Crime increases due to unemployment when these individuals are
at home, social norms are broken and young girls may engage in other
activities such as prostitution with an aim of making money World Drug
Report (2002).Youth start experimenting with this drugs before they
start using them, they are commonly given in the major youth joints
where young people meet, after they have experimented most go to the
next level which is regular use of this drugs and they soon develop
risky behaviours which are far different from their normal behaviours,
once they are dependent on this drugs the enter the final stage which is
drug abuse.
The use of prescription stimulants among college-age adults to enhance
academic performance is increasing. However, the extent of usage across
health care programs is unknown. There have been numerous studies on the
use of illicit drugs in undergraduate colleges and by health care
professionals; however, the literature is lacking in studies that
explore health care professions students using prescription drugs
specifically for academic performance enhancement and studying purposes.
Wolaver (2005) Methylphenidate and amphetamine, dextran and phentermine
are reported as being used frequently to increase alertness during
periods of study. Stimulant drugs, primarily prescribed for patients
with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder are also being used across
college campuses.
Several theories have been discussed in the literature regarding reasons
for substance abuse in general. Renna (2006) found that Individuals may
begin abusing drugs due to anxiety and fears of failure. These
substances may temporarily mask these fears by creating a feeling of
indifference towards the high expectations of society. For healthcare
students, tension and stress are especially high due to intense
competition, challenging curricula, and dealing with patient
interactions. There have been numerous studies regarding the prevalence
of prescription stimulant use among college students. In research
performed by DeSantis (2000),
rates of stimulant use varied from 4.1% to 35.5%. Another study
describes 382 (8.3%) of the 4,850 respondents had used illicit
prescription stimulants in their life-time, and 269 (5.9%) had used
illicit prescription stimulants in the past year.
This same study also found that around three-quarters of illicit
prescription stimulant users reported taking amphetamine in the past
year, and approximately one in four reported using methylphenidate
products. In this study, 48 students (18.0%) used methylphenidate.
Another 2004 study found 6.9% lifetime prevalence in college students, a
past-year prevalence of 4.1%, and a past-month prevalence of 2.9%. One
study found that 17% of men and 11% of women use prescription
stimulants. A study published in 2008 confirmed higher rates among males
at 39% versus females at 30%, while another 2008 study came to the
conclusion that there is no difference between genders. DeSantis et al
(2000) found that 94% of stimulant user were Caucasian and McCabe et al
(2004) also found highest rates in Caucasians. Teter et al (2002)
reported that college students were more likely to use prescription
stimulants illegally
There are several theoretical motives behind stimulant drug use.
DeSantis et al (2000) found that 72% of the college students surveyed
were taking prescription stimulant drugs to stay awake to study, and 66%
were using them to concentrate on their work. Other reasons included to
aid in memorization (36%), to stay awake and have fun (22%), and to
make work more interesting (12%). During qualitative interviews,
DeSantis et al (2000) found that alcohol, marijuana, prescription
barbiturates, and cocaine were used almost exclusively to have fun.
Medications were used predominantly for the more serious pursuit of
getting good grades.
Carroll (2004) found that college students were using stimulant drugs as
study aids as well as for recreation-al purposes. Of those surveyed
96.8% were using stimulants to study longer, 96.8% to stay awake, 83.9%
to study better, and 27.6% to improve memory. Teter et al (2002)
revealed tha t65.2% of their survey population used prescription
stimulants to help with concentration, 59.8% to help study, and 47.5% to
increase alertness. Teter (2002) also found that students who started
using prescription stimulants during college were more likely to use
them to improve con-centration (70.0%) as compared to those who started
before college (55.0%).The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
prevalence of prescription stimulant use and thus increase awareness of
the problem. Knowing which prescription stimulant drugs are most
commonly abused for other-than-intended uses, as well as the motives
behind abuse, can potentially help universities implement prevention
policies and educational strategies.
As an academic discipline, Luppicini (2005) asserts that educational
technology prepares individuals by helping them acquire a deeper
understanding and mastery of learning resources: messages, people,
materials, devices, techniques and settings. This implies that it
analyzes and provides solutions to problems through research, theory,
design, production, evaluation, utilization. The focus is on effective
processes to facilitate learning using technologies and understanding
the impacts of technology on learners and organizations (DeVaney and
Butler2009).The National Policy on Education (NPE 2004) conceptualizes
technology education as that type of education that leads to the
acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as the basic
scientific knowledge.