THE NEGATIVE INFLUENCE OF DRUG ABUSE ON A CHILD’S ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL.

 THE EFFECT OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ABSTRACT The purpose of the study is to look into the effects of drug abuse, its  application on students in some selected secondary schools in Egor Local  Government  Area of Edo State. In the light of the above topic or subject matter, attempts were made to find out the drugs commonly abused by students and the reasons why they are abused. As a result, the following questions were asked as a basis for our finding. 1. What is drug abuse? 2. Why do you think children abuse drug? 3. What are some of the effects of drug abuse on the user? 4. How do drugs affect the performance of students in schools? 5. As teachers and parents, what steps have you taken in controlling drug abuse? Literature was reviewed on the topic using relevant authors such as textbooks, journals and newspapers etc. Questionnaires were also made to collect vital information about the research study. Based on the findings, it was gathered that students who abuse drug do it because of friends, to make them bold.      CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF STUDY A drug can be defined as any chemical solid, liquid or amorphous substance derived from plants, animals or mineral resources which is applied externally or internally to cause some desirable effects. Also, drug can be defined as a substance which by its chemical nature has an effect to open the body of higher nervous system (the mind) the effect of drug could be positive or negative. POSITIVE EFFECTS OF DRUG Drug when properly used or taking into a living organism, produces the desired result, and may modify one or more of its functional parts; it is usually prescribed by a medical practitioner. Such drugs or substances are either of vegetables, animals or mineral origin. They could be prepared for the human body that that produces the desired results into the treatment of diseases and ailment. NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF DRUG (DRUG ABUSE) The negative effect of drug is also referred to as drug abuse. Drug abuse is therefore defined as the excessive consumption of a drug by any individual. Drug abuse results when there is self injection or from the approved medical in a manner that deviates from the approved medical usage. Drug abuse is involved in the following: 1. Excessive use of drugs and use of unprescribed drugs. 2. Use of hard drugs. Excessive use of drugs and use of unprescribed drugs This is when an individual takes in drugs without following the current prescription of the doctor.  Use of hard drugs Hard drugs are capable of affecting the state of the body or mind by either depressing or stimulating the central nervous system or producing other biochemical harm to the society at large. According to Agwusike (1990), drug abuse is the use of drugs above the prescribed dosage and for the purpose other than for the original prescription. Adi also defined drug abuse as self treatment of physical ailment which could result from ignorance. The society of doctors and pharmacists frowned at the uncontrollable ways and manners in which the drugs are sold to the public in our markets, and medical stores which are contributory factors to drug abuse. Uncivilized and developed nations, drugs other than those for common pain, cough and cold remedies are sold in a doctor’s prescription. Drug abuse could be viewed from different perspectives depending on the focus under view. It could be described as a non medical use of drug, which may cause harm to the individual and the society. These could be drugs which do not conform to the society’s cultural norm of a society. People generally misuse or abuse drugs because the substance alter the mode of behaviour of an individual. Over the years, the use of hard drugs like tobacco, sedatives, Indian hemp, cocoa leaves, alcohol, heroine, morphine, cocaine to mention but a few have drastically been on the increase especially in this part of the world (Africa). The dependence or addition, which is psychological, is characterized by the compulsion to take drugs on a continuous or periodic basis in order to experience its mental effect. The history of drug abuse could also be traced to the urge of man wanting to have power to relieve tension, satisfy his needs obtained occasional release from problems and the need to find a cure to some ailments, all these have contributed to drug use and abuse. The use of drugs by man is as old as man himself. Man consumed the juices of opium poppies long before there were narcotics, such as morphine and heroine, man chewed cocoa leaf long before cocaine was extracted from both American cocoa plants. Man dried peyote castro long before they synthesized. Throughout recorded history, drug has been in use long before this medical and recreational intoxicating and self induced relief from psychic pain and emotion. The early history of drug is inseparable from the early history of medicine. Most traditional drugs are always misused or abused because of lack of dosage to determine the quantity required by the users. The expiration period is never stated, substances that are today referred to as drugs originated from herbs and other natural chemicals, caffeine, which is the main ingredient in tea or coffee and nicotine as in tobacco or cigarette, is widely used as mind stimulant and tension relieving drugs. They are considered socially acceptable and used recreationally. However, they produce dependence and are also known to cause harm. Other drugs, although are used medically for the treatment of one ailment or the other, may also cause problems for the individual. Examples of such drugs are psychoactive drugs or sedatives like valium and mogadon which are sleeping pills and pain killers which are medically prescribed but may be abuse thus causing dependence and harm. CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS Drugs can be classified into the following viz; 1. Stimulants such as tobacco, cocaine or coffee. 2. Depressant such as alcohol and other substances of depressants such as heroine, morphine and opiates. 3. Hallucinogens. STIMULANTS This kind of drug stimulates the nervous system of an individual to behave extraordinarily leading such individual to misbehave. The health implication is that the individual is acting on the influence of a cultivating factor such as tobacco, cocaine etc. Common incidence that happens around us today is on the influence of these stimulants and if care is not taken, could lead to mental disorder. DEPRESSANTS These are sleep inducing drugs. They are used to calm anxious and restless subjects. These are barbiturates and non barbiturates that are capable of producing some degree of depression of the central nervous system (CNS). They are the most dangerous drugs. HALLUCINOGENS These are substances that produce a state of altered perception and other alteration of mood such as illusion, hallucination. Examples of these drugs are lysergic acid diethyl lamine (LSD) phylogibin (extracted from innobrowi) magaline. Drug abuse has caused great problem to humanity. A lot of damages have been done to human health as a result of drug use and abuse and these damages could be mental, physical, emotional and psychological so that it has in a long way reduce life span of man. There are also social problems associated with drug use and abuse. They include high rate of crime, deformity either physically or mentally and affect unborn children whose mothers abuse drugs when they are pregnant. It can even lead to high rate of infant mortality in unborn babies or pregnant mothers when giving birth to mongoloid children. Great misfortunes have resulted as a result of drug abuse e.g. series of road accidents that have claimed lives of men. Drug addicts when severely under the influence of drugs walked along the street half naked and perpetual acts like rape, assassination and murders. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Drug abuse is a pandemic problem even on the increases in an alarming rate in Nigeria today. About two decades ago, incidence of drug trafficking in Nigeria was low and abuse was minimal, but today drug has destroyed and killed many people in the society. Students in our secondary schools are not left out in this act. In view of this, the research is embarked on to highlighting the i8lls of drug abuse. Over the years, it has been observed that students from secondary schools in Egor local government area of Edo state are in the form of drug addiction or the other as well as being involved in drug abuse. This research is therefore designed to view immediate causes and health implication of drug abuse among students in some selected secondary schools in Egor. The researcher hoped that this research work would help the teachers, school authorities and the society at large to minimize the use and effects of drugs in schools. Also, this study will encourage the government of Egor local government area to establish drug rehabilitation centres with the help of the ministry of health and drug inspection unit (DIU) to care for addicts. PURPOSE OF STUDY The purpose of this study is to highlight the causes of drug abuse among students in some selected secondary schools in Egor local government area of Edo state by random sampling thus by taking from the beginning, middle and deep end of the local government. Although the4rer are books, magazines, articles and newspapers reports on drug abuse, no in-depth research has been conducted on the incidence of drug abuse in students and to recommend appropriate solutions to if possible. The researcher intends to engage the following: a. Find out the main causes of drug abuse on students. b. Determine the effects of these drugs on the students. c. Find out the influence of drugs on the students and the effect of drug abuse on the society. d. Find out the reasons why students abuse drugs. e. Find out the overall effects of the abuse of drugs on the students. This study might also stimulate the researcher into areas of drug education or some aspects of drug use and abuse among students. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY This study is aimed at investigating drug abuse and its health implication on students in secondary schools. The following therefore are some of the objectives at the end of the study. 1. Students would be informed on the negative effects of drug use and abuse. 2. Parents and teachers will be acquainted of their roles in curbing drug abuse from early childhood. 3. More researchers will be encouraged to carryout research work on the causes of drug abuse and its remedy. 4. Government will be able to make policies and laws that will prohibit the use of dangerous drugs. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The importance of this study is to provide resource materials for many that want to have deeper knowledge abou8t the causes, effect and control of drug abuse. This research work will encourage organization like NAFDAC, NDLEA, health organizations like WHO, SHE and government parastatals to establish drug rehabilitation centres to help victims of drug abuse. Moreso, the significance of this study is to outline its health implication amongst secondary school students, which will be centred on the following: 1. To identify the causes of drug abuse among secondary school students. 2. To help reduce the hazard of drug abuse to minimum and to enlighten the teachers on how to educate their students and the society at large. 3. To reduce the incidence of rape among secondary school students. 4. To alert the government on how to control the abuse of drugs since the short term and long term effects are disastrous. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS The following are the basic assumptions made by the researcher. a) That the habit of addicting to drugs begins from the environment the child grew up in. b) Students who use drugs are prone to disease attack. c) Students use drugs and abuse them because they are easily available. d) Use of drugs can lead to psychosis and premature death. RESEARCH QUESTIONS In the course of carrying out this research work, the research will attempt to proffer solutions to the following questions. a) What are the classes of drugs? b) What drugs are commonly abused by students? c) Why do students use drugs? d) What are the causes of drug abuse? e) What are the health implications of drugs abuse? HYPOTHESIS In order to achieve a purposeful result in this research, it is necessary to declare the following statements. 1. Students engage in drug abuse in an attempt to cope with the opposite sex. 2. Most students abuse drugs in order to gain absolute self confidence amongst fellow students in class. 3. Drug abuse among students results from influence from friends and peer group pressure. 4. Students who abuse drugs are sure to suffer from mental, psychological and emotional problems. SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study was carried out in some selected secondary schools in Egor local government area of Edo state. The schools covered for this research include: Uselu secondary school, Eghosa grammar school all in Edo state. These schools were selected because of their past and present records of drug abuse.  Effects of Drug abuse on Academic Performance  the above shows the relationship between the dependent and independent variables of the study. As shown in the figure, the academic performance, which was the dependent variable, could be affected by drug abuse such as alcohol, marijuana, tobacco and  barbiturates among others. If students abuse drugs such as alcohol, marijuana, tobacco and barbiturates then this will directly impact negatively on their academic performance. Easy access to drugs at home or at school influence whether a student is likely to be an addict.  The culture of the people in the community and around the school directly impacts the student’s life. Excessive alcohol consumption, especially illicit brews are common in the county, therefore this is tied to students taking the habit from peers and parents and bonding with other drug users in the society. However, a student’s attitude towards drug abuse, impacted by education and knowledge can contribute to them deciding not to or to take the drugs anyway. The effects of these variables on the academic performance in colleges could also be influenced by cultural factors, such community acceptance or lack of intervention, which was the intervening variable of the study.  Organization of the Study  This study is organized into five chapters; the first chapter is the introduction that gives a general overview of the research problem. This chapter further provides a background to the problem, a problem statement as well as the objectives and assumptions of the study. Literature that is relevant to this field of study is reviewed in chapter two to establish the influence of drugs on students’ academic performance. Chapter three examines the methodology that will be used to collect and analyze data. Chapter four deals with data analysis while chapter five focuses on conclusions and recommendations as well as further proposed areas of research.      CHAPTER TWO  LITERATURE REVIEW  Introduction  This section consists of review of related literature. The section covers introduction, literature on the causes of drug abuse amongst Students, Nature and extent of drug abuse by Students. Then literature is reviewed on the measures taken against drug abuse by the schools, local community as well as both local and county government, effects of drugs, levels of drug and substance prevention, policies against drug use in Kenya and social effects of drug abuse and poor academic performance. After this the theoretical framework and conceptual framework of the study are presented.   Alcoholism and Academic Performance  A large number of studies tried to identify whether there are direct and/or indirect causal links between consumption of addictive substances and poor educational attainment. Most intuitively, alcohol and drug consumption may have some detrimental effects on pupils’ cognitive abilities, for instance, by decreasing their ability to concentrate. Concerning the indirect channels, drug and alcohol consumption may for instance be responsible for shifting individuals’ resources away from schooling. Additionally, it may undermine students’ progress by making them less likely to attend classes or keep up with their studies. Finally, psychologists argue that heavy drinking may lower individuals’ expectations about their academic performance Deasetal, (2000). This effect could be driven by a shift in students’ peers when they engage in abusive alcohol consumption. There is still no consensus in the literature concerning the existence of a causal link between consumption of addictive   substances and educational outcomes. On the one hand, some studies provide evidence that heavy drinking and drug consumption lead to a lower schooling performance. DeSimone and Wolver (2005) find that by introducing a large vector of covariates which control for heterogeneity between alcohol consumers and non-consumers, the negative causal relation between alcohol use and academic performance re-mains significant for heavy drinking. In line with these results, Williamset al (2003), report that heavy drinking has a negative impact on schooling achievements by reducing the time spent studying.  Renna (2006) finds that heavy alcohol consumption has a negative effect on the probability of graduating from a high school rather than receiving a general education diploma (GED). However, these results are subject to valid criticisms since they ignore or only imperfectly control for the potential selection bias. Some studies are not able to reject the absence of a causal effect of drugs and alcohol consumption on educational performance. For instance, many physiological studies do not provide robust evidence on the detrimental effects of drugs Solowij, (1998). In the economic literature, Dee and Evans (2003) conclude that alcohol use by teenagers does not have any significant impact on their education. Similarly, Koch and Ribar (2001) demonstrate that the actual effects of youthful drinking on students’ success are likely to be small. Finally a recent paper by McCaffrey et al (2008) shows that marijuana abuse does not have any significant influence on high school dropout.  The major difficulty in the identification of a causal effect of addictive substances consumption on educational outcomes is the fact that students who regularly consume alcohol and drugs do not constitute a random sample of the population of students. They tend to present some characteristics that systematically differ from those of students who abstain from drug and alcohol consumption. For instance, this behaviour is negatively associated with family income and educational background (Deaton, 2003). Suppose that some parents do not   encourage their children to place great value on education. If they provide poor quality supervision to their children including with respect to alcohol and drugs consumption, then the empirical association between education and the consumption of these substances would be spurious. Also, more impatient children are both more likely to smoke and drink alcohol Sutter et al (2010) and to procrastinate with their school working duties Bettinger et al (2007). Thus, it is difficult to disentangle the causal impact of consumption of drugs and alcohol per someone’s educational achievement. To account for this endogeneity problem Duarte et al(2006) and Duarte and Escario (2006) employ a bivariate probity model to jointly estimate the determinants of schooling and drinking/smoking decisions. Their results indicate a negative causal relationship between alcohol consumption and schooling attendance. However, this study can be criticised on the grounds that it relies on the availability of a valid instrument, i.e. Factor that has some bearing on the decision to use alcohol and drug, but that is unrelated to schooling. Renna (2008) and DeSimone (2005) employ a two-stage probity model to deal with the problem of endogeneity of alcohol use.  A common and comprehensive measure of students’ learning is Grade Point Average (GPA). GPA is an important outcome because it is a key determinant of college admissions decisions and of job quality for those who do not attend college. Only a few studies have explored the association between alcohol use and GPA. Wolaver (2002) and Williams, Powell, and Wechsler (2003) have studied this association among college students, while DeSimone and Wolaver (2005) have investigated the effects of underage drinking on GPA during high school. The latter study found a negative association between drinking and grades, although it is not clear whether the effects are causal or the result of unobserved heterogeneity.   Understanding the relationship between teenage drinking and high school grades is pertinent given the high prevalence of alcohol use among this age cohort and recent research on adolescent brain development suggesting that early heavy alcohol use may have negative effects on the physical development of brain structure (Brown, Tapert, Granholm and Delis, 2000). By affecting the quality of learning, underage drinking could have an impact on both college admissions and job quality independent of its effects on years of schooling or school completion. Alcohol use could conceivably affect a student’s quality of learning and academic performance regardless of its impact on school completion. This possibility is suggested by Renna (2008), who uses a research design similar to that used by Dee and Evans (2003) and finds that although binge drinking does not affect high school completion rates, it does significantly increase the probability that a student graduates with a GED rather than a high school diploma  By contrast, more recent economic studies that arguably use better estimation methods have found that drinking has modest or negligible effects on educational attainment. Dee and Evans (2003) studied the effects of teen drinking on high school completion, college entrance, and college persistence. Employing changes in the legal drinking age across states over time as an instrument, they found no significant effect of teen drinking on educational attainment. Koch and Ribar (2001) reached a similar conclusion applying family fixed effects and instrumental variables to NLSY data. Though they found that drinking had a significant negative effect on the amount of schooling completed among men, the effect was small. Finally, Chatterji (2006) used a bivariate model of alcohol use and educational attainment to gauge the sensitivity of the estimates to various assumptions about the correlation of unobservable determinants of these variables. She concluded that there is no evidence of a   causal relationship between alcohol use and educational attainment when the correlation coefficient is fixed at plausible levels.  Drinking could affect learning through a variety of mechanisms. Recent neurological research suggests that underage drinking can impair learning directly by causing alterations in the structure and function of the developing brain with consequences reaching far beyond adolescence Swartz welder, (2004). Negative effects of alcohol use can emerge in areas such as planning and executive functioning, memory, spatial operations, and attention   Marijuana and Academic Performance  According to (Spooner, 2005) the social environment is a powerful influence on health and social outcomes. In this context Marijuana use and related problems result from the complex interplay of the individual and the environment whereby social institutions or structures can influence the environment in a manner that can influence drug use and related problems. Societal structures include government policies, taxation systems, laws and service systems such as welfare, education, health and justice. As such increased attention to the ‘social’ determinants of drug use is required. In terms of increasing problematic Marijuana use Wilkinson notes the rapid growth in widening income differences during the 1980s and the rise in heroin use.  Adverse socio-economic circumstances may lead to psychological and emotional damage partly through increasing levels of stress brought on by money worries, unemployment and housing but essentially through a lack of choices. The social and economic environment establishes the context in which domestic life has to cope and cannot be separated from a range of what are normally seen as family problems. The quality of the social life of a society is one of the most powerful determinants of health and this is closely   related to degrees of income equality. However income equality is not the only determinant. Also important are psychosocial relationships for the subjective quality of life that people experience. Sources of social stress, poor social networks, low self-esteem, and high rates of depression, anxiety and a lack of control all have a fundamental impact on life experience. In this sense ‘unhealthy behaviours such as addiction may in part be explained by the need to consume psychoactive substances for their psychosocial effects, particularly where they are used to counter stress and reduce anxiety.  Behaviour has been found to lead to the trying out of new experiences such as drug and sex, sometimes with dire consequence for the adolescents. One widely accepted definition of drugs states that drugs are compounds that, because of their chemical structure, change the functioning of biological systems (Levinthal, 2000).The biological systems include respiration, growth, excretion, locomotion, reproduction, etc. The effects may be beneficial as in the case when drugs commonly referred to as medicines (e.g. Panadol, antibiotics, cough mixture, etc.) are used as prescribed by the doctor. Some other drugs have been found to be capable of producing effects that are not beneficial but harmful (Oloyede, 1996). The term drug abuse, applies only to instances in which people take drugs purely to change their moods, and in which they experience impaired behaviour or social functioning as a result of doing so (Wallace & Fisher 2003).  Unfortunately, when people consume consciousness-altering drugs on a regular basis, they often develop dependence – they come to need the drug and cannot function without it. According to (Odejide, Ohaeri, Adelekan and Ihuesan 2005), psychoactive drug use is a common problem among adolescents especially for the socially acceptable drugs like alcohol and cigarettes. A survey of secondary school students in Ilorin, Kwara State reported that 12% were currently using alcohol (Abiodun, Adelekan, Ogunremi, Oni &Obayan, 2005). In a study   of out-of – school adolescents aged 11 to 20 in Jos, found a lifetime consumption of alcohol reported by 38.7% of the respondents (Obot, Ibagam, Ojiji & Wai, 2001).  Having realized that majority of Marijuana use start during the adolescence stage especially so for the ‘gateway’ drugs, alcohol and cigarettes, the need to check this bad practice in the society is important. Alcohol and cigarettes are described ‘as gateway’ because they are usually, the first drugs that are used before other drugs are tried out (Indiana Preventive Resource Centre, 2003). Drug abuse by students can lead to sharp decline in their academic performance, increase reports of truancy and expulsion from school. It can also lead to addiction increased desire for drugs without which normal life processes is disturbed, and increased appetite and libido. Other vices such as stealing, fighting and gambling may also be caused by drug abuse as a result of alteration in the brain chemistry of the abusers.  Continued use of a drug over a prolonged period of time often leads to drug tolerance, Physiological reaction in which the body requires larger and larger doses in order to experience the same effects. In some cases, tolerance for one drug increases tolerance for another; this is known as cross-tolerance (Baron & Kalsher, 2008). Patterns of drug use may vary greatly around the world and overtime. In the United States, the use of many consciousness-altering drugs by young people dropped during the 1980’s, but increased again during the 1990s (Baron &Kalsher, 2008). In fact, the result of One large survey indicated that teenager’s use of many drugs – including, alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, and nicotine (in cigarettes) – had increased substantially (Johnston, O’Malley &Bochman, 1997).  Consumption of cannabis for medical purposes is legal with a prescription in 15 states, and many states are in the process of decriminalizing non-medical marijuana use. More than 97.5 million Americans over the age of 12 have used illicit marijuana, and it is considered by   many to be a benign recreational drug. However, evidence exists of significant harm for some individuals, with 1 in 10 users developing cannabis dependence Samhsa (2007). Furthermore, sixteen percent of all substance abuse treatment admissions in the United States were for cannabis-related disorders; this is second only to alcohol-related disorders Samhsa (2007). It is estimated that more than 4 million Americans meet Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV diagnostic criteria for cannabis dependence. This figure has doubled from 2001, and will likely continue to grow. Thus, an understanding of the effects of cannabis on executive functions is likely to be of widespread clinical relevance.  Some cannabis-related executive function deficits improve after cessation of cannabis use Pope Bolla (2002), but growing evidence suggests that other deficits persist after cannabis is discontinued. This may hinder an individual’s ability to make the best use of behavioural therapies and put him or her at greater risk for relapse to cannabis use Adding to the complexity of this issue is the fact that many factors can impact cannabis-related impairment and recovery of executive functions, including age of onset of smoking cannabis, years of use, and amount of regular use Grant (2003). This clinical conundrum is compounded by the fact that treatment professionals may not be able to easily identify patients with cannabis-related impairment in executive functions without the benefit of neuropsychological assessment.  Although there is convincing evidence that acute cannabis use generally affects cognitive and motor functions, it is less clear as to whether those deficits are short term and transient or if they are more enduring. Previously published reports Pope et al., (2001; 2002) using traditional neuropsychological assessment methods typically show a resolution of deficits by 28 days of abstinence. However, as neuroimaging technology has improved, more recent reports show subtle, long-term effects of cannabis on cognition and brain functioning.   2.4. Tobacco and Academic Performance  A survey conducted by (Fatoye and Morakinyo, 1997) on substance use amongst secondary school students in rural and urban communities in South Western Nigeria with a sample size of 542 made up 266 males and 276 females found that the prevalence rate of current Smoking was 13.4%. The study also found that the prevalence rate of Tobacco use was 26.4%. And that the most commonly used alcoholic beverage was palm wine (60.1%), followed by beer (20.8%), and then locally fermented wine and locally distilled gin (14.7%).  Numerous studies have indicated an alarming increase in water pipe smoking (Eissenberg T., Shihadeh A, 2009). Water pipes are known by different names depending on the region of the World, These include, but are not limited to, hookah, narghile, arghile, shisha, and hubble-bubble. Research has established that water pipe tobacco smoke contains and produces toxic substances similar to those produced by cigarette smoke, including carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic volatile aldehydes, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nicotine. (Eissenberg and Shihadeh A, 2009) reported that a single water pipe tobacco smoking session may involve the inhalation of 50 to 100 times the smoke volume inhaled from a single cigarette.  Water pipe smokers who smoke once a day were found to have the same plasma nicotine concentration as cigarette smokers who smoke 10 cigarettes a day. Evidence also suggests that water pipe smoking is associated with negative health outcomes similar to those of cigarette smoking and poor concentration levels due to its hallucinogen properties since it contains the harmala alkaloids harman and norharman, which are hallucinogens. Over the years researchers have identified, the association between water pipe tobacco smoking and lung cancer, respiratory illness, low birth-weight, blood pressure and heart rate increase, and   poor academic performance. According to (Eneh and Stanley, 2004) the signs range from physical, behavioural and psychological signs of drug abuse. They include sudden weight loss or gain, disorderly conduct, unusual smell on breath, body or clothing, unexplained need for money, engaging in secretive or suspicious behaviours, sudden change in friends, favourite hang-outs and hobbies, sudden mood swings, irreparability anger outburst and unexplained change in personality.  Eneh and Stanley (2004) also outlined signs that come with different drugs Marijuana use has the following signs; Glassy, red eyes; loud talking, inappropriate laughter followed by sleepiness; loss of interest, motivation; weight gain or loss while Depressants(including Xanax, Valium, GHB) had Contracted pupils; drunk-like; difficulty concentrating; clumsiness; poor judgment; slurred speech and sleepiness. Stimulants (including amphetamines, cocaine, and crystal meth): Dilated pupils; hyperactivity; euphoria; irritability; anxiety; excessive talking followed by depression or excessive sleeping at odd times; may go long periods of time without eating or sleeping; weight loss; dry mouth and nose.  The link between school achievement and smoking behaviour is well studied (Bryant et al., 2000; Ellison et al., 2001). The better students do academically, the less likely they are to smoke (Bryant et al., 2000; Young et al., 1986). Poor grades early on in life predicts strongly increased tobacco use at a later date (Bryant et al., 2000) and difficulties in quitting smoking. Furthermore, other studies have indicated that onset of smoking may result in a decline in school achievement. Bryant et al. (2000) tested this bi-directional relationship between school achievement and smoking, among other indicators such as alcohol use, school bonding and misbehaviour. They argued that smoking might lead indirectly to poor school performance (Bryant et al., 2000). Moreover, Ellickson et al. (2001) showed that early smoking experimenters were at a higher risk of poor grades later on.   Since the mid-1980s, the Member States have stepped up cooperation on combating drug addiction and drug trafficking. Since 1990, European Councils have adopted a variety of action plans and programs to provide a comprehensive response to this phenomenon. The European Councils in Cardiff (June 1998) and Vienna (December 1998) called on the Council, the Commission and Parliament to draw up a new, comprehensive anti-drug strategy to replace the 1995-1999 Action Plan. The Commission communication is a follow-up to this request and sets out recent trends in drug abuse and trafficking in the EU and the course the Union's anti-drugs measures should take over the next five years.  The setting up of the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the Europol Drugs Unit (replaced since 1 July 1999 by the European Police Office (Europol)) has led to a better understanding of the drug phenomenon and simplified Member States' cooperation on the collection and exchange of information. The information provided by these two bodies in 1998 has made it possible to identify a number of trends in consumption and trafficking. The use of cannabis, still the most widely used drug in the EU, has levelled out, while the use of amphetamines and misuse of medicines is on the increase. As regards trafficking, the routes used by the various drugs are well known, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans often serving as the hub for heroin, cocaine and cannabis. The EU is also a major producer of synthetic drugs. The plan for 2000-2004 identifies a number of priorities: Measures to counter the use and production of cannabis, amphetamines and ecstasy; the introduction of integrated projects to combat urban delinquency, especially among young people.  Interest in social influence on adolescent smoking has conventionally included family influence (Tyas et al., 2001). Social influences can be described as the processes whereby people directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings and actions of others Social   influence constitutes social norms, modelling and perceived pressure (Markham et al., 2004). Social norms are adolescents’ expectations of people’s reactions to specific behaviour and the support that they experience from others in carrying out a certain type of behaviour De Vries (2000). Modelling as a term denotes perceiving a prevalence of smoking among influential people and ‘pressure’ denotes an experience of direct pressure to smoke. Social influence can be direct social norm and perceived pressure or indirect modelling Markham (2004). Recently, contextual variables at the macro level, such as the influence of the neighbourhood, have also been shown to affect adolescent smoking Backer (2003).  Levels of Drug and Substance Prevention  Primary prevention of substance abuse is preventing the initiation of psychoactive substance use or delaying the age at which use begins (WHO, 2000:12). This is aimed at ensuring that drug abuse will not occur. It aims at teaching the skills for dealing with inter and intra-personal influences such as stress and peer pressure. The objective of primary prevention is broadly to deter experimentation, encourage or provide risk minimization within a population. Most primary prevention programs are directed to elementary schools and children in general because there is the realization that drug abuse is now beginning at early ages. Primary prevention aims at emphasizing on the realistic risks associated with drug and alcohol abuse. In order to formulate a realistic primary prevention program the following should be considered.  The program’s must provide knowledge on effects of drug abuse, life skills like communication, assertiveness, decision making and coping social skills. Secondary prevention is the intervention aimed at individuals in the early stages of psychoactive substance use. The aim is to prevent substance abuse from becoming a problem thereby   limiting the degree of damage to the individual (World Drug Report, 2000:109). It’s aimed at identifying a determination or modifying for the better drug abuse at the earliest moment possible. It aims at discontinuation of infrequent drug abuse, increasing opportunities for intervention to prevent progression of the problem and individual at risk rather than the entire society. This prevention can be done by instituting early detection programs in schools, workplace and other areas where drug abuse takes place.  Tertiary prevention aims at ending dependence and minimizing problems resulting from use/abuse. This type of prevention strives to enable the individual to achieve and maintain improved levels of functioning and health. Sometimes tertiary prevention is called rehabilitation and relapse prevention (WHO, 2000:12). It’s aimed at preventing drug abuse related to death; reduce the negative impact of an already established problem by restoring and reducing other related complications. It also aims at relapse withdrawal of symptoms and preventing the retaking of substances after achieving abstinence.  Barbiturates and Academic Performance  It has been observed that much of substance use among youths take place in schools. The incidence of barbiturates use among students is high (Eneh& Stanley, 2004). Barbiturates use during adolescence is almost always a social experience and a learned behaviour (Swaid 1988). One of the important psychological phenomena observed during this period of adolescence is experimentation (Graham, Turk &Verhulst 1999). Youth engaging in drugs and having low grades in school often feel misplaced and judged by the society, this is because the community educates a child so as to assist him or her and in future the child can give back to the community but once one starts getting involved in drug activities, there is no longer hope for that child since drugs are linked to misery and poverty hence one cannot 25   advance. Crime increases due to unemployment when these individuals are at home, social norms are broken and young girls may engage in other activities such as prostitution with an aim of making money World Drug Report (2002).Youth start experimenting with this drugs before they start using them, they are commonly given in the major youth joints where young people meet, after they have experimented most go to the next level which is regular use of this drugs and they soon develop risky behaviours which are far different from their normal behaviours, once they are dependent on this drugs the enter the final stage which is drug abuse.  The use of prescription stimulants among college-age adults to enhance academic performance is increasing. However, the extent of usage across health care programs is unknown. There have been numerous studies on the use of illicit drugs in undergraduate colleges and by health care professionals; however, the literature is lacking in studies that explore health care professions students using prescription drugs specifically for academic performance enhancement and studying purposes. Wolaver (2005) Methylphenidate and amphetamine, dextran and phentermine are reported as being used frequently to increase alertness during periods of study. Stimulant drugs, primarily prescribed for patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder are also being used across college campuses.  Several theories have been discussed in the literature regarding reasons for substance abuse in general. Renna (2006) found that Individuals may begin abusing drugs due to anxiety and fears of failure. These substances may temporarily mask these fears by creating a feeling of indifference towards the high expectations of society. For healthcare students, tension and stress are especially high due to intense competition, challenging curricula, and dealing with patient interactions. There have been numerous studies regarding the prevalence of prescription stimulant use among college students. In research performed by DeSantis (2000),   rates of stimulant use varied from 4.1% to 35.5%. Another study describes 382 (8.3%) of the 4,850 respondents had used illicit prescription stimulants in their life-time, and 269 (5.9%) had used illicit prescription stimulants in the past year.  This same study also found that around three-quarters of illicit prescription stimulant users reported taking amphetamine in the past year, and approximately one in four reported using methylphenidate products. In this study, 48 students (18.0%) used methylphenidate. Another 2004 study found 6.9% lifetime prevalence in college students, a past-year prevalence of 4.1%, and a past-month prevalence of 2.9%. One study found that 17% of men and 11% of women use prescription stimulants. A study published in 2008 confirmed higher rates among males at 39% versus females at 30%, while another 2008 study came to the conclusion that there is no difference between genders. DeSantis et al (2000) found that 94% of stimulant user were Caucasian and McCabe et al (2004) also found highest rates in Caucasians. Teter et al (2002) reported that college students were more likely to use prescription stimulants illegally  There are several theoretical motives behind stimulant drug use. DeSantis et al (2000) found that 72% of the college students surveyed were taking prescription stimulant drugs to stay awake to study, and 66% were using them to concentrate on their work. Other reasons included to aid in memorization (36%), to stay awake and have fun (22%), and to make work more interesting (12%). During qualitative interviews, DeSantis et al (2000) found that alcohol, marijuana, prescription barbiturates, and cocaine were used almost exclusively to have fun. Medications were used predominantly for the more serious pursuit of getting good grades.   Carroll (2004) found that college students were using stimulant drugs as study aids as well as for recreation-al purposes. Of those surveyed 96.8% were using stimulants to study longer, 96.8% to stay awake, 83.9% to study better, and 27.6% to improve memory. Teter et al (2002) revealed tha t65.2% of their survey population used prescription stimulants to help with concentration, 59.8% to help study, and 47.5% to increase alertness. Teter (2002) also found that students who started using prescription stimulants during college were more likely to use them to improve con-centration (70.0%) as compared to those who started before college (55.0%).The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of prescription stimulant use and thus increase awareness of the problem. Knowing which prescription stimulant drugs are most commonly abused for other-than-intended uses, as well as the motives behind abuse, can potentially help universities implement prevention policies and educational strategies.  As an academic discipline, Luppicini (2005) asserts that educational technology prepares individuals by helping them acquire a deeper understanding and mastery of learning resources: messages, people, materials, devices, techniques and settings. This implies that it analyzes and provides solutions to problems through research, theory, design, production, evaluation, utilization. The focus is on effective processes to facilitate learning using technologies and understanding the impacts of technology on learners and organizations (DeVaney and Butler2009).The National Policy on Education (NPE 2004) conceptualizes technology education as that type of education that leads to the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as the basic scientific knowledge.